• Notes:
  • Credit: @Usual_Respond_7553 on Reddit, link to his guide on google docs: here
  • To Practice your knowledge you can visit his doc and scroll down to which you'll see a table with everything
  • Tons of helpful resources on this doc

• Song China (960-1279)
  • Leading power in ancient world and a continuity throughout history (dynasties)
  • CE 960 china was split into regions as Tang Dynasty (618-907) weakened
    • Zhoa Kuangyin united the divided regions into Song Dynasty
      • Built off innovations of tang rulers and established chinese state structure that lasted over 1k years
  • Song State Structure
    • Bureaucracy led by confucianism
      • Meritocracy
    • Mandate of Heaven
    • 6 departments: personnel, finance, rites, army, justice, public works
      • Watched over by censorate
  • Confucian thought: reality is fundamentally hierarchical and everyone has their place in society
    • Led to revival of civil service exam
    • Shifted power from hereditary to scholarly leaders → Scholar Gentry class
    • Emphasized Filial Piety and a Patriarchal society
    • Respect towards parents, elders, and ancestors
    • Foot binding became a status symbol
      • Painful technique for upper class women that showed they didn’t have to work on their feet
  • Trade
    • Participated heavily in trade such as silk road across afro eurasia
      • Commercialized chinese society → people began to produce goods for sale exclusively
      • Silk road had places for travelers to rest
    • Production of new goods for the market
      • Cast iron goods
      • Song iron production was so advanced, it rivaled 18th century Europe’s iron production
      • Porcelain (Fine China)
      • Silk
    • Not enough metal to keep minting coins, led to paper money which was overprinted and created inflation → term flying cash
    • The Grand Canal connected the north and south of China from the Sui to the Yuan Dynasty
  • Naval Innovations
    • Compass and navigation charts
    • Junk Ships, large ships with lots of cargo and square sails
  • Gunpowder
    • Discovered by alchemists with saltpeter and charcoal and spread to military
  • Agricultural Productivity
    • With new technologies such as Metalworking which developed iron plows
      • Led to population growth (25% to 40% of world's population)

• Japan and Chinese Influence
  • Heian Japan (794-1185) was contending with chinese influence
    • Wanted to form own identity to stay separate
    • Chinese influence was all over japan
      • Architecture, art, state system

• Religion in China
  • Center of trade routes so many religions met in china
    • Buddhism spread to china from India and new forms from trade routes
    • Mahayana Buddhism from Vietnam became very popular in china
      • Added deities and heavens and hells to originally atheistic Buddhism

• Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE)
  • Became leading power after Umayyad’s fall
    • Both were Sunni Islam
    • Fatimid (909-1171) was Shia caliphate
  • Caliphs were both religious rulers and state rulers
    • Sultan = non arabic ruler but still followed islam
  • 750: The Golden Age of Islam, lines up w/ the Song’s golden age
    • House of Wisdom became center of learning where they expanded upon advancements of other cultures
      • Preserved ancient Greek Texts and translated to Arabic, adopted papermaking from china
    • Developed Arabic Numerals by studying math from India
    • Adopted papermaking from China
  • Jizya tax made more people convert to islam
    • Many benefits to converting, majority was islam, no tax, one code of laws
  • Society
    • Baghdad “Round City” was capital, eventually became highly decentralized with competing regional caliphates from Dar al-Islam’s size
    • The power of the Islamic world was so immense that it rivaled the Christian kingdom of Constantinople
  • Cultural Flourishing and Trade
    • Increased Trade with Dhows
      • Used lateen sails which were triangular and could be used to tack into winds
    • Knowledge of the monsoon wind patterns
    • Joint ventures with Christians and Jewish traders
    • Because more religiously tolerant, and was very profitable
    • Credit system: eliminate risks with carrying coins
    • Receipts and bills system
  • Hospital and Medical Care improved
  • Relied heavily on slave labor
  • Decline leading to decentralization
    • Internal division
      • Sunni vs. Shia
      • Ethnic differences
    • External threats
      • Seljuk Turks (nomadic Sunni)
      • Persians, Byzantines
      • Europeans: Crusades (1000s-1200s)
      • Mongols
        • 1258 during Crusades: took over Baghdad, marking the end

• Preservation of Islam
  • New Islam states emerged
    • Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517)
      • Prospered by trading sugar and cotton
      • Fell when Portuguese/European trade increased
    • Delhi Sultanate (more in 1.3: S.Asia)
    • Seljuk Turk
      • Nomadic, established some states sometimes (not that important)
      • Absorbed by ottoman empire later
  • Sufi Missionaries
    • Mystic rituals
    • Appealed by adjusting to local culture

• Ottoman Empire (1299-1918)
  • Ottoman Turks reunified Dar al Islam in 1299

• Al-Andalus (711-1492)
  • Islamic empire in Spain/Iberian peninsula
  • Center of learning
    • Ex. scholar Ibn Rushd aka Averroes
  • Religions tolerated each other

• Culture and Life
  • Women
    • Higher status than Christian or Jewish
    • Respected by Muhammad (founder of Islam)
      • Forbade female infanticide
    • Oppression increased with developments of cities and towns
      • Hijab
      • Harem: dwelling for wives (polygamy)

• South/SE Asia = India to vietnam/indonesia

• India
  • Ruled by Muslims in north (Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)) and Buddhism was important
  • Hindu kingdoms still had most significant influence in India

• Ghaznavid Empire (977-1186)
  • Mahmud of Ghazna launched many expeditions from Afghan heartland and established capital Ghazni
  • Muhammad Ghuri led another wave of Islamic Turkish invasions Afghanistan to north India
    • All of north india until the rajas fell one by one (Rajput Kingdoms)
      • Before the Turks, rival chiefs called rajas ruled
      • Gained power by giving grants to brahmans who spread religion (hinduism) and taught the indigenous people how to cultivate
    • Brahmans repaid raja’s support with complex genealogies consolidating their power
      • In return, rajas demonstrated that they were well versed in Sanskrit culture by patronizing different artists and poets
  • Ghaznis established their own systems, accepted other local customs like hierarchical varna (caste) system
  • Brought political integration but also strengthened the cultural diversity of india
    • Sultans hired local artisans to build many building projects
    • Islam never fully dominated South Asia bc sultans didn’t force their subjects to convert
    • The Hindus assimilated the invading Turks
      • Adopted each others beliefs
    • Turkish speaking Sultans used Persian as administrative language cementing varna system as local hindus spoke local languages
    • Rulers collected the jizya
    • Permitted communities to administer their own law
    • Islam found that it did not have to be an all conquering religion to prosper in India
  • The leaders didn’t pay much attention to the life on the Indian coast (southern)
    • Traders settled around the coast
    • Persian-Zoroastrian traders around modern day mumbai
    • Arab traders in Malabar coast
      • Brought rich and powerful political integration but didn’t enforce cultural homogeneity

• Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
  • The Turkish Delhi Sultanate dominated most of north/middle India
  • Converted many indians to Muslim (forcefully at first but peacefully later)
    • Enacted jizya (nonbeliever) tax
  • Two brothers from Delhi Sultanate were sent to south india to gain influence
    • They had converted to islam for social mobility, so they converted back to Hinduism once they left
    • Established new hindu kingdom in south india called Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646)
  • Trading hub, 2nd largest population in 1000 CE

• Religion in India
  • Dominant religion was hinduism, buddhist minority
  • Concept of hinduism: through cycle of reincarnation, the soul wants to escape the cycle to become one with brahman (a deity) depending on karma
  • Bhakti movement 12th century
    • Emphasized emotional side and devotion to one god within the polytheistic religion
      • Similar to muslim sufis with experience and direct relationship with gods
  • Caste system divided hindu society into 5 groups
    • Zero social mobility because to move up would mean to die and be reborn

• India and cultural exchange
  • Intellectual exchange with middle east
    • Arabs built on advances in astronomy begun by indians
    • Arabs translated indian work on algebra and geometry and spread them throughout Dar al-Islam

• Southeast Asia
  • Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam
    • Filled with hindus and buddhists
      • Religion spread through trade
  • Majapahit Empire (1293-1527)
    • Sea based empire on island of Java
      • Buddhists
      • Gained wealth and power by controlling sea routes and taxing spices
  • Khmer Empire (802-1431)
    • Land Based empire in modern day Cambodia
    • Flourished because of complex irrigation and drainage systems going to and from river
    • Led to huge agriculture progress and prosperity
    • Originally hindu but converted later to buddhism
    • Islam also spread to these empires

• Trading Empires in Southeast Asia
  • Meleka entrepôt close to Malaysia in Southeast Asia
    • Close to Malayan tropical produce
    • Received trade from India, China, and Java—traded all over asia
    • Traders waited for winds to change before moving on
  • Port of Quilon in South Indian Chola Dynasty (300B.C.-1279C.E.)
  • In between trade routes from China and the Mediterranean → trading hotspot
    • Personal relationships important to trade, large muslim population
    • Received trade from Africa and by land

• Mayan Empire (250-1697)
  • Central America
  • Relied on Maize
  • Governance: city-state
    • No standing army; Fought to gain tribune
      • Collected payment and captives
    • Decentralized
  • Religion
    • Polytheistic
    • Human sacrifice
    • Gods of sun, rain, corn
  • Science/technology
    • Astronomy: calendar for religion
      • Used pyramids to observe
    • Concept of zero
    • Writing system

• Aztec Empire (1300-1521) aka Mexicas
  • Capital: Tenochtitlan (modern day Mexico City)
    • Lake Texcoco
  • Expansion policy
    • Expanded with conquest and alliances
    • Professional army
      • Extremely respected in society
    • 12 million people
  • Government: Theocracy
    • Emperor was also religious leader
      • Human sacrifice
    • Conquered areas
      • Heavy taxes and captives
      • Allowed to self-govern (not a bureaucracy)
        • Used local rulers to collect tribunes
  • Developments
    • Roads linked areas → trade flourished
    • Irrigation
    • Chinampas: floating gardens
  • Women
    • Expected to do housework
    • Engaged in crafts and sometimes commerce
      • Important producing cloth
  • Decline
    • Late 15th
    • Inefficient agricultural technology
      • No wheels
    • Overexpanded → tribes resented
    • Spaniards arrival 1519

• Inca Empire (1438-1533)
  • South America: Andes Mountains in Peru
  • Governance
    • Bureaucracy in provinces
    • Ruler claimed to be the sun god Inti’s representative
    • Mita System
      • Mandatory public service
    • Professional army
  • Religion
    • Sun god Inti most important
    • Dead rulers mummified
    • Sometimes human sacrifice
    • Animism: elements of the physical world can have supernatural powers
  • Achievements
    • Numeric record keeping with strings
    • Terrace farming and irrigation
    • Bridges and Roads: Carpa Nan (25k mile roadway system)
  • Decline
    • Civil war weakened army at the time of Spanish conquistador invasion in 1532
    • Machu Picchu: remaining ruins

• Mississipian culture (700-1350)
  • Earthen mounds
  • Cahokia
    • Largest mound
  • Governance and social structure
    • Matrilineal society
    • Chief called Great Sun ruled each town
  • Decline
  • Abandoned for unknown reasons
    • Maybe European diseases or agricultural failure from flooding

• By 1000, most sub-Saharan Africans had adopted agriculture but not centralized governments
  • Organized themselves into kin-based networks
  • Led by a chief and those close together connected in loose federations
    • Chiefs formed councils to solve problems
  • Bantu migrations spread Swahili language, ironwork, and irrigation around Africa

• Hausa Kingdom (c.1300-c.1800)
  • Group of many kin-based networks into a kingdom w/ 7 states but had no central authority
    • Each state specialized
      • Plains state specialized, western states provided military
  • Benefitted from Trans-Saharan Trade Network

• Mali (1235-1600)
  • Sundiata was the founder of Mali, a Muslim who took power from a disintegrating Ghana
    • Epic of Sundiata told by griots, described his rise to power
      • Griots are oral storytellers
    • Used his Islamic faith to establish trade relations with North African and Arab Merchants
    • Created a thriving gold trade
  • Nephew Mansa Musa
    • Under his rule, became very wealthy with gold and ivory
    • Well known for his pilgrimage to Mecca
      • Flaunted wealth throughout journey showing wealth of Mali, and devalued gold through his travels from extravagant spending
    • Built Mosques and madrasas throughout his trip
      • Madrasas = islamic schools of learning
    • Built a large mosque and university in Timbuktu, an entrepôt to attract people from all over the Islamic world

• Songhai (1375-1591)
  • Songhai took power from Mali as it began to disintegrate in the late 14th century. They converted to Sunni Islam in order to integrate the empire

• Ghana (c.300-c.1100)
  • Around the 5th century, the kingdoms of Ghana were established all throughout north Africa
    • Before Ghana, strong central govt were uncommon, communities were organized through Kinship, age and gender
    • Before the time of Muhammad
    • Reached its peak in 8th and 11th centuries
  • Ghana’s rulers sold gold and ivory to Muslim traders in exchange for salt, copper, cloth, and tools
    • Caravans for trade along with camels which were so important for the trade network
  • 12th century, wars with neighboring societies→ holy war from muslims led by Abu Bakr weakened Ghana and new trading societies emerged in its place → Mali

• Great Zimbabwe (c.1000-c.1400)
  • Centralized govt. under a king, spoke bantu
  • Architecture demonstrated wealth of the kingdom
    • Traditionally houses were made of wood
  • Known for great walls
    • Created by a largely pastoral society coming together for protection and society with homes enclosed on large walls
    • Mixture of agriculture, grazing, trade, and gold
  • Traded with coastal cities, indian ocean basin, which led to blending of Bantu and Arabic to create Swahili
    • Lingua franca of African continent
  • Zimbabwe collapsed when population left to new lands due to overharvesting

• Ethiopia/Abyssinia (1270-1974)
  • Beginning in 7th century the spread of Islam made the region religiously diverse
    • Rulers expressed power through architecture and churches
  • Ethiopia had a fusion of faith with traditional animism and cultural beliefs with Christianity
    • Ethiopian Christianity developed separately from Rome and Orthodox Church
    • 12th century Ethiopia and Kingdom of Axum emerged
      • Christian led
      • Prospered by trading goods obtained from India, Arabia, the Roman empire, and Africa

• Western half of Roman empire (625 B.C-476 C.E) fell in 476
  • Eastern half continued as Byzantine Empire (395-1453) in the east

• Feudalism: during this time europe was fractured politically into small tribal kingdoms who were constantly at battle for dominance
  • System of mutual obligations that exist between classes
  • King gave land to Vassals(lords) in exchange for service and tribute
  • Vassals employed Knights for protection in exchange for money
  • Serfs lived on land of lords and were tied to land and worked in exchange for a home and some food
  • Feudalism period known as Dark Ages because standard of living and intellectual life declined
    • Developed three-field system (rotation between seasons for maximum production)
  • Manorialism: economic system

• High Middle Ages (c.1000-c.1450)
  • Rise of more powerful monarchs
    • Power from feudal lords to kings
    • Two ways to establish power
    • Established large bureaucracies to carry out will of king
    • Conscripted giant standing armies
    • Both directly answerable to king

• Magna Carta 1215
  • Power shifted back to nobles
    • Gave rights such as right to a jury trial, right of all free citizens to own and inherit property
  • English Parliament 1265
    • Body that represented the interests of the noble class

• Continuity of the Roman Catholic Church’s power
  • Established first universities in Europe during this time
  • Most philosophers and educators were religious at the time
  • Most of art produced during the time was funded by church
    • Funded for visual education for illiterate

• Power struggle between church and state
  • Church continued to provide cultural and ideological unity across Europe

• Crusades (1096-1291) were advocated for by the Pope and christendom to take up arms to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslims
  • Example of churches power, shifted people’s loyalties back to the church
  • Ideologically modified to say that it was holy war to take land back, and fighting in it would allow entrance to heaven

• Exploration
  • Late 13th century Marco Polo left his home to explore the world and found himself in China at the court of Kublai Khan
    • Polo wrote an account of his travels which became popular in Europe and it opened European’s imagination to the exotic culture and wealth of the far East
    • Innovations in mapmaking and cartography

• Rise of the middle class (bourgeoisie)
  • Shopkeepers, merchants, small landowners

• Small Ice Age
  • For a few years temperatures slowly fell leading to a sharp decrease in agricultural productivity and thus population
    • Less population, less trade, sinking economic conditions

• Renaissance (c.1300-c.1600)
  • Rebirth of ancient greek and roman culture, art, and literature
    • Lots of new art created during this time
  • Ideas of humanism stressing importance of individuality

• Nation States
  • Feudal kingdoms were decentralized
  • England centralized faster (Magna Carta)
  • France
    • Decentralized but expansion collided with English → Hundred Years War
    • Joan of Arc
    • Fueled national identity and unified France
  • Spain
    • Marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand unified Spain and transformed it to a major european power
      • Allied with catholic church to show importance of christianity in their state
      • Son became emperor of holy roman empire
      • Area used to be under islamic, religiously tolerant rule
    • Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834)
      • Judicial institution claiming to combat heresy in spain
        • In practice, consolidated power for Spain by killing 30,000-300,000 religious minorities (muslims and jews) who had converted to catholicism
          • Claimed they had false religious beliefs
  • Russia
    • Tatars (Mongolians) ruled 1242-1400s
    • Late 1400s: Ivan III expanded Muscovy territory into modern-day Russia
      • Established himself as czar
    • Moscow became center of Eastern Orthodox Church (Third Rome)
    • Mid-1500s: Ivan the Terrible centralized powers
      • Secret police
      • Nationalism

• Direct comparisons based on time
  • Europe in 1200s vs. 1400s
    • 1200s: feudalism
      • Decentralized society
    • 1200s: external threats from Mongols, Ottomans
    • 1400s: early stages of renaissance
      • Cultural and intellectual movement towards individualism
    • 1400s: less threats from outside forces
      • More effort on expansion and exploration overseas
  • Catholic Church in 1200s vs. 1400s
    • 1200s: powerful force with influence over politics
    • 1400s: challenged by protestant movements
  • Africa and Middle East in 1200s vs. 1400s
    • 1200s: important centers of trade through trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trade networks
    • 1400s: Europe began to emerge as major player in global trade
      • Exploration from Columbus and Vasco da Gama

• Direct Comparisons based on Dynasties
  • Song China: large bureaucracy
    • Japan: feudal, regional
  • Abbasid Caliphate: ruler closely linked with religion to solidify power
    • Western European kingdoms were separate from Roman Catholic Church’s power
  • Swahili coast had many interconnected trade routes
    • Western Europe had no access to these trade routes or similar ones
  • Silk road connected Song China to Abbasid caliphate (and everything in between)
    • Western europe had no access to these trade routes
  • Both Europe and China experienced agricultural productivity through three-field crop rotation and Champa rice respectively
  • Mali Kingdom and Abbasid Caliphate used Islam to unite ununited people
  • Song Dynasty and north India saw increase in religious diversity and thus religious conflict
  • Christianity and Buddhism had divisions in their faiths resulting in conflict

• New States
  • Mamluk Sultanate (former Abbasid) see above
  • Selijuk Empire (Former Abbasid) see above
  • Delhi Sultanate (Former Gupta) see above

• Old empires revived
  • Song Dynasty (based on Han) see above
  • Mali Empire (based on Ghana) see above
  • Holy Roman Empire (based on Kuman Empire) see above

• Different Traditions synthesized
  • Japan combined Chinese and Japanese
  • Delhi Sultanate combined hindu and islamic
  • Neo-confucianism

• Expansion in Scope
  • Aztecs in Mexico → tribute system
  • Incas in south america →mit’a system
  • City-States in East Africa → swahili, ethiopia
  • City-States in SE Asia → Srivijaya, Khmer

• Shaping of old cultures and beginnings of new cultures

• Stretched all the way from China to Europe and into North Africa
  • Existed before 1200 but worked best as a conduit of trade when large empires controlled all the land across which they stretched
    • 200 CE: Roman Empire and Han China had a robust trading relationship because they almost controlled all the land in the silk roads
    • Mongols: unified silk roads

• Trade moved goods all across afro-eurasia during good times
  • Goods often packed in saddlebags of a camel caravan
    • Not a lot of space for lots of travel so most goods were luxury goods
    • Chinese Silk
      • Exclusive to china, demand spread across world as it became a status symbol

• Silk roads as a conduit for culture
  • Buddhism spread widely throughout central and east asia through merchants and changed as it spread
    • Buddhist monasteries began to use lavish products despite the buddhist ideal of rejecting material value
    • Mahayana buddhism developed and spread across trade routes
      • Buddha became a deity, emphasis on compassionate works and earning of merit
  • Sogdian city of Samarkand
    • Buddhists used Zoroastrian fire rituals into religion
    • Syncretism and change

• Silk roads as a conduit for disease
  • Different civilizations had different diseases but as they connected, those with low immunity were affected
  • Black death/bubonic plague (1346-1351)
    • Nearly half of european population died between 1346-1348
    • Similar results in China and Islamic World

• Mongols (1206-1368) were pastoral people who emerged in 13th century who controlled largest land based empire in all of human history
  • However left a very small cultural footprint on history

• Temujin (Genghis/Chinggis Khan)
  • Born in 12th century into network of fractured mongolian tribes which warred against each other
  • Temujin and his family became social outcasts but his magnetic personality allowed him to create alliances between tribes uniting them and becoming chief
  • Reputation for ruthlessness with enemies, many military victories

• Mongol Tactics
  • Instead of destroying or enslaving enemies, incorporated them into military

• Mongol Expansion
  • First expanded to china
    • 1209 attack against chinese
    • Fierce attacks defeating armies and capturing cities
    • Those defeated could either join mongol army or die

• Organization of army led to success despite unfavorable odds
  • Organized in groups of 10, 100, etc. to easily command large groups of troops
  • Conquered people were scattered among groups to prevent rebellion
  • Army was fiercely loyal out of fear
    • If a member of a unit deserted, the whole unit was killed

• Tolerance
  • Allowed conquered people to keep religion

• Response to mongols
  • China: most difficult, 1209-1279
    • Began in northern china and at first wanted to take power but goal changed to incorporating chinese into society
      • Wanted landowners to keep land as long as they pledged loyalty
    • Unified china into Yuan dynasty (1271-1368)
      • Some chinese even thought mongols had mandate of heaven
      • Used existing systems of taxation and administration
      • Roads built, canals improved, scholars and artists patronized
      • Forced out by peasant rebellions and plague
  • Persians: more abrupt than china
    • Persian forces fell quickly to mongols
      • Was hard for persians to understand that the infidel Mongols could have conquered them so easily
      • Mongols were brutal in their conquest
        • 1258 sacking of Baghdad killed 200,000 people
    • After defeating persians, persians had more cultural influence than mongols did
      • Used persian administrative system, many mongols became muslim, allowed persian administrators to stay in power
    • Mongols in persia slowly assimilated and disappeared over time

• Indian Ocean linked societies by sea
  • Largest sea based trade network before Atlantic in 1500s
  • Stretched from China all the way to East Africa

• Ships were larger so they could also trade bulk goods
  • Didn’t have to prioritize selling luxury goods
  • Porcelain from china, spices from SEA, cotton/spices from india, ivory/gold from East Africa
  • Bulk goods were crops such as wheat, sugar, rice

• Monsoon winds
  • By this period they had figured out patterns of wind so used seasonal winds to power ships

• Maritime innovations
  • Magnetic compass
  • Astrolabe calculated latitude
  • Chinese Junks: Large flat bottom ships with square sails with trunks to carry goods

• Growth of Indian Ocean Trade Routes
  • Existed before 1200 but saw greatest growth in 1200-1450
    • During Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties
    • China saw great economic prosperity and export
  • Also grew due to Islam
    • Islam is positive to merchant activity
    • Large islamic empires led to large area of land being positive towards trade

• Indian Ocean Changing Culture
  • SEA was right in middle of Indian Ocean Trade Routes so controlling islands was very important
  • Srivijaya Kingdom (c.600-c.1200)
    • Buddhist empire that controlled trade in Indonesia along key trade routes and cities

• Swahili Civilization
  • Civilization emerged in 8th century as a series of commercial city-states
    • Traded gold, ivory, slaves
    • Merchant class emerged, swahili commercial centers flourished
    • Each city state had its own king so it wasn’t centralized
    • Islam became dominant religion in area from muslim merchants
    • Swahili language fusion of native Bantu language and Arabic

• Linked North Africa and Mediterranean with interior of Africa
  • Both areas had different goods from different climates which incentivized trade
  • North africa mainly produced manufactured goods like cloth, glasswork, books
  • Southwest Africa were agricultural: grain crops, yams, kola nuts

• Introduction of Arabian Camel facilitated trade
  • Camels could easily cross the harsh deserts allowing easier travel across Sahara

• Cultural changes in Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
  • 500-1600, west african civilizations grew
    • Kingdom of Mali (more info unit 1) peaked in 14th century
    • Monopoly on trade of horses and metals
    • Generated revenue by taxing salt and copper
    • Social hierarchy:
      • Similar to other civilizations, royalty, then elite classes, then merchants, then military/religion then peasants, then slaves

• More was carried along trade routes than goods and services

• Religion
  • When religions were introduced to new areas, one of two outcomes
    • 1. Unified the people and justified leaders
    • 2. the religion syncretized with others mixing to create something new
  • Buddhism met Daoist beliefs in China resulting in Zen(Chan) Buddhism
  • Some Confucian scholar gentry in Song Dynasty opposed mixing of religions
  • Neo Confucianism
    • moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism
    • Popular in Song and Ming Dynasty
    • Spread to Korea and Japan
  • Muslim Merchants
    • Muslim merchants brought islam to East African Coast from Indian Ocean
    • Formed Swahili language
      • Swahili language fusion of native Bantu language and Arabic
    • Many Bantu people became Muslim

• Scientific and Technological consequences
  • Medical advances in Cairo led to improved care in hospitals
  • Physicians and pharmacists began to standardize their profession
    • Had to study for medical examinations and licensing
  • Triangular lateen sail
    • Allowed sailors to tack into wind for more flexibility in travel
  • Stern post rudder allowed for more precision in turning
  • Magnetic compass, astrolabe → navigation (more above

• Growth of cities
  • Hangzhou china, increase in trade led to increasing urbanization
    • Became largest and most metropolitan cities in china with population over 1 million
    • Great art from Hangzhou because people didn’t have to worry about food
      • Poetry and literature flourished
      • Poets Lu Yu and Xin Qiji
    • Hangzhou was a diverse city with thriving Arab community
  • Travelers
  • Marco Polo
    • Due to mongols could travel far and wide
    • Marco Polo left home in venice in late 1200s and arrived at court of Kublai Khan
    • Kublai Khan was so interested in Polo’s stories that he made Polo ambassador to various parts of China
    • Jailed by enemies of Venetians and in jail he told stories of his travels which were written down and became very popular in Europe spreading interest for Asia and exploration.
  • Ibn Battuta
    • Muslim traveler who wanted to travel throughout dar al-Islam
      • Made pilgrimage to Mecca, moved through Persia, East African Coast, India, Mali, Spain, and elsewhere.
    • Kept a journal and commented on lands and people he visited
    • Publication of the journals had a similar effect on the Muslim population as Marco Polo’s stories

• Two major categories of things that spread through trade networks
  • Agriculture, disease

• Agriculture
  • Merchants traveled from place to place bringing new crops
    • Champa rice spread from Vietnam to China and was drought resistant with faster harvests
      • Led to great population growth
      • Environmental impact led to transformation of land
        • terrace farming: steps were cut in hillsides to plant rice
    • Bananas from SEA spread to Africa where Bantu-speaking people learned to plant and cultivate it
      • Yams were food staple for bantu, but could now move to areas where yams couldn’t grow
      • Resulted in large scale migration which also happened in other areas when new crops were introduced

• Environmental effects
  • As population increases, more stresses on land
  • Overgrazing in Great Zimbabwe (more in unit 1) led to environmental degradation and it was abandoned in 1400s for that reason
  • Land in Europe was changed through deforestation and Little Ice Age in 1300s
    • Resulted in large erosion of soil

• Spread of disease
  • Spread through merchants, especially black death (see above)
    • Disease spread through fleas, and once someone got it death was unpreventable
      • “Breakfast with family, dinner with ancestors”
    • Also spread by mongols and rats in ships through trade routes
  • Caravanserai
    • Little cities along silk roads where merchants could rest
    • Spread disease because people rested in close proximity to animals and animals have fleas
  • Economic results of black death
    • Changed relationship between workers and lords in Europe
      • Workers were scarce so had more value

• Trade Networks Review
  • Silk Road
    • Land based routes across Eurasia and north africa for over 2,000 years
      • Exchanged mostly luxury goods
      • Significant in transporting ideas, technologies, and religion
    • Declined in influence with the rise of sea-based trade routes and the growth of European colonialism
  • Indian Ocean Trade
    • Maritime network connecting coastal regions of Indian Ocean and SE Asia
      • Diverse group of traders exchanging luxury items and bulk produce (agriculture)
    • Facilitated by monsoon winds and Muslim’s trade supportive society
    • Declined in influence with the rise of sea-based trade routes and the growth of European colonialism
  • Trans-Saharan Trade
    • Land based routes across Sahara desert
      • Exchanged goods, ideas, and cultures between West Africa and the Mediterranean
      • Dominated by arab and Berber traders
        • Exchanged gold, salt, ivory, and other luxury items
        • Important source of exotic animals and plants
    • Facilitated by use of camels who could withstand desert conditions
      • Important for spread of Islam and other religions
    • Declined in influence with the rise of sea-based trade routes and the growth of European colonialism

• Similarities and differences amongst all trade networks
  • Similarities:
    • Trade networks exchanged goods and resources
    • Trade networks were important in the economic development of the regions they connected
    • Trade Networks facilitated the exchange of ideas, cultures(religion), and technologies
    • All trade networks exchanged culture, technology, and biology (disease)
      • Buddhism on Silk Roads, Hinduism on Indian Ocean, and Islam on trans-Saharan
    • Commercial improvement increased volume of trade
    • Trade networks promoted new trading cities (entrepôts)
    • Innovations in pre-existing transport and commercial technologies impacted the growth of trade
      • Caravanserai, forms of credit, development of money economies
  • Differences:
    • Goods traded varied and produced items symbolic to their region
      • Silk road: silk, spices, precious metals, luxury goods
      • Indian Ocean: spices, textiles, luxury goods, common goods in bulk
      • Trans-Saharan: Salt, gold, ivory, kola nuts
    • Geographical regions differed
      • Silk Road: Eurasia and parts of North Africa
      • Indian Ocean: Africa, Middle East, South Asia, SE Asia
      • Trans-Saharan: Mediterranean, West Africa
    • Transport and communication changed
      • Silk Road, Trans-Saharan: land-based transportation (camels)
      • Indian Ocean: Ships (lateen sail, dhows)
    • Political and economic context was different
      • Silk Road: controlled by powerful states or empires
        • Mongols
      • Indian Ocean: open trade network, more decentralized
    • Changes in trade routes were a result of increasing productive capacity with changes in social structures, gender structures, and environmental changes
      • Need for luxury goods increased in Afro-Eurasia
      • Chinese, Persian, and Indian merchants expanded the supply of textiles and porcelains for export
      • Production of iron and steel expanded in China

• Gunpowder empires in SE Asia, Asia, SW Asia
  • States that relied on gunpowder to keep power and expand their territories
  • Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal all arose from fall of Tamerlane’s empire
    • Tamerlane: military leader from Samarkand who took lots of land in Persia and India area, killing thousands at the gates of Delhi
      • Used military to control merchants on silk roads
      • Large amounts of funding required for military and internal (managing tribes) disputes resulted in its failure
  • Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)
    • Largest and greatest of all islamic empires during this time
      • In 1433 under the leadership of Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) sieged and took Constantinople from the Byzantine empire using gunpowder and advanced cannons
        • Changed name to Istanbul
        • Converted Hagia Sophia (cathedral) into mosque
        • Benefited from its location because it was at the center of many trade routes
    • Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566): was seen as the peak of the Ottoman Empire
      • Conquered more area around the Mediterranean and attempted to push further into europe past Hungary but was stopped
        • Regardless still made Europe scared of Ottomans
  • Safavid Empire (1501-1736)
    • Ismail I conquered most of Persia, and parts of Iraq using gunpowder
      • Was Islamic, but Shia Islamic not Sunni like the Ottomans
        • Legitimized power by having a religion for the country but also rejected other countries that weren’t Shia, namely, the Ottomans
    • Persian/Iran
  • Mughal Empire (1526-1761)
    • Descendent of Tamerlane named Babur founded Mughal Empire when India was in disarray
      • Babur completed conquest of Northern India using gunpowder and established central government similar to Suleiman
    • Akbar was an important ruler who led Mughal to be prosperous
      • He was Muslim but supported other religions in India such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity
        • Sikhism started in punjab india around 1500
        • Sikhism values equality, social justice, service to humanity, and tolerance for other religions
      • Akbar consolidated power by promoting differences, unlike other empires during the time
    • North India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
    • Cultural achievements
      • Taj Mahal
        • Built by Shah Jahan to honor dead wife but also to display power
  • Fall of Gunpowder Empires
    • Failed to modernize economy and military unlike the Europeans

• Asian Empires:
  • Russian Empire (1721 to 1917)
    • Territory stretched from east to west, became wealthy with trade
    • Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) became tsar in 1547
      • Expanded Russia further east into mongolian territory with gunpowder
  • Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868)
    • Centralization → peace

• Europe: Black death was ending, Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) was ending, Gutenberg Printing Press spreading ideas
  • Monarchies were coming out of feudal period and wanted to centralize power
    • Methods of consolidating power by kings: control over taxation, military, and religion
    • Bureaucracy expanded
    • Tudors in England
    • Valois in France
    • Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain
  • Renaissance (c.1300-c.1600)
    • Rebirth of Roman and Greek ideals
    • Emphasis on humanism and individualism
    • Funded by Medici family
      • Michaelangelo, Brunelleschi, da Vinci, Donatello
  • Rise of middle class arose from these new kingdoms
    • Happened at expense of nobility and clergy
  • Protestant Reformation (see unit 4)

• Asia:
  • Yuan Dynasty was replaced by Ming Dynasty in 1368 and ruled into 16th century
  • 1636 Qing Dynasty established by Manchu Jurchens who overtook ming china for “seven grievances”
    • Restored the Great Wall of China against mongol threat in north
    • Emperor Kang Xi expanded chinese territory into Taiwan, Mongolia, Central Asia, Tibet with gunpowder

• How rulers of land based empires legitimized and consolidated their power

• Europe: 3 ways
  • 1: Divine Right of Kings
    • Similar to mandate of heaven
    • In England, King James believed that god put rulers in power and therefore king was vice regent of Jesus himself
      • To oppose king was to oppose Jesus/God
      • Resulted in kings seeing themselves as outside of the law because what the will of god
  • 2: Justices of the Peace
    • Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603) used them to settle legal disputes and carried out the will of the monarch around England
  • Power was not unchecked
    • 1689 Parliament passed English Bill of Rights
      • Freedom to petition, protections from cruel and unusual punishment
  • 3: Rise of Absolutism in France
    • Monarchical system giving absolute power to the king
    • Henry IV began process by insisting on Divine Right of Kings
    • Louis XIII created entendents, similar to Justices of the Peace because they executed the will of the king and collected taxes (also known as tax farmers)
    • Louis XIV consolidated so much power he was virtually a dictator
      • Combined legislative and judicial system for himself
      • Built Palace at Versailles to show power
      • Also decreed that nobles must live at palace to keep them close and avoid rebellion

• Ottoman Empire:
  • Ottomans sultans used a system called Devshirme
    • Took enslaved people from tribute states of empire (Balkans)
      • Educated these people and made them serve in military or work as administrators of the empire
      • Typically boys from age 8-20
    • Islam teaches that muslim cannot enslave another muslim so the Ottomans took people from the southern European and Balkan christian population
    • Janissaries were the elite military corps of the Ottoman empire from the Devshirme system
      • The administrators or janissaries became fiercely loyal to the sultan
  • East and SE Asia
    • Ming Rulers overthrew Yuan Dynasty and established Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
      • Wanted to remove all traces of mongols
        • Reintroduced civil service exam and strengthened bureaucracy
    • Japan was organized like feudal europe
      • Daimyo were landowning aristocracy who employed samurai for protection
      • Japan was fractured among many daimyo territories
      • Over time the daimyo grew powerful and unified more of Japan
    • Tokugawa Shogunate (1603 – 1868)
      • Tokugawa Ieyasu was a daimyo who moved power from daimyo to shogun
      • The emperor remained in his palace in Kyōto chiefly as a symbol of power behind the shogun
      • Similar to Louis XIV, required daimyo to live in capital city of tokyo as well as their home
  • India/Mughal Empire (1526–1761)
    • Akbar known as greatest ruler of Mughal empire
      • Established efficient system for managing
      • Zamindars went around india collecting taxes and settling disputes as administrative power
    • 3 main ways rulers legitimized power: Religion, Art, and Architecture
      • In Africa in the Songhai Empire (unit 1), Askia the Great claimed Islam as official religion and created a sense of cultural unity
      • In India, Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal as a tomb for his wife
      • The Ottomans changed Constantinople to Istanbul and built magnificent mosques, the most magnificent of them being the Suleymaniye Mosque
      • Louis XIV built Palace at Versailles in France
      • All these grand gestures made people realize these rulers had power

• Major belief systems
  • Hinduism
    • Polytheistic, cycle of reincarnation and reaching spiritual liberation
    • Dominant in South Asia (modern day India)
    • Bhakti Movement
      • Spiritual and social movement in India
      • Emphasized importance of personal relationship with a deity; less formal, ritualistic, and traditional
      • Influenced Indian music and literature
  • Islam
    • Monotheistic
    • Five Pillars of Islam
    • Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire (1526-1857)
    • Sufism
      • Mystic belief system with rituals
      • Closer to God with prayer and meditation
      • Emphasis on “brotherhood”
      • Missionaries spread Islam
    • Sikhism
      • Syncretic religion combining Islam (monotheism) and Hinduism (karma and reincarnation)
        • Equality of all people; reject caste
        • Social justice
      • Developed in Punjab region, northern South Asia
        • High Islam-Hindu contact
    • Sunni-Shia Split
      • ~700 CE, but conflict intensified between Ottoman (Sunni) and Safavid (Shia)
  • Buddhism
    • Originated in India
    • Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path
      • End suffering and achieve enlightenment
    • Theravada Buddhism
      • Meditation and simplicity
    • Mahayana Buddhism
      • Spread more because of mission to spread
      • East Asia
  • Christianity
    • Protestant Reformation
      • 16th century
      • Challenged authority and corruption of Pope
        • Sold indulgences
      • Led by Martin Luther, German monk
        • 1517: Published the Ninety-Five Theses
        • Translated bible to German, making it more accessible to public
        • Lutheran church created
      • Calvinism
        • John Calvin from France → God already chose future
        • Also influential
      • Results
        • Created protestant churches
        • Contributed to the development of nation-states and democratization
    • Counter-Reformation
      • Catholics’ attempt to gain back followers
      • Jesuits
        • Focusing on the teachings of Jesus
        • Self-control and moderation
        • Missionaries
      • Council of Trent (1545-1563)
        • Clarify Catholic stance on religious questions
        • Punished “heretics”
  • Confucianism
    • Philosophical system, not religious
    • Social harmony, filial piety, authority, tradition
    • Chinese empires
  • Americas
    • Aztec and Inca used previously existing religions
      • Aztecs → Mayan
      • Incas → Moche and Chavin
        • Worship sun and moon
    • Human sacrifice
      • Aztecs especially more prevalent

• https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world/unit-3/comparison-land-based-empires/study-guide/2Rn32kOkbYrFiBFILoBh

• Land-Based Empires
  • Mughal Empire (1526–1761)
    • Ruled South Asia
      • Founded by Muslim dynasty of Chagatai Turco-Mongol origin
      • Claimed direct descent from Timur (Tamerlane) and Ghenghis Khan
    • Period of economic, cultural, and architectural (and artistic) prosperity
  • Ottoman Empire (c.1300-1923)
    • At peak in 1500s, 1600s, they ruled much of SE Europe, West AFrica, North Africa
    • Ruled by (Sunni) Islamic Turks
    • Centralized, autocratic government, diverse population of Muslims, Christians, and Jews
    • Dissolved in 1923 after their defeat in WWI
  • Safavid Empire (1501-1722)
    • Eastern (Shia) Islamic State founded by Ismail I
      • Centered in modern-day Iran and surrounding areas
      • Contributed to Persian art, literature, and culture
    • Fought with Ottoman empires through border disputes and Shia vs. Sunni Muslim divide
    • Fell in late 18th century, dissolved in early 19th
  • Songhai Empire (1375-1591)
    • Ruled over a large part of West Africa
      • Capital was city of Gao on Niger River
      • Known for strong military which led it to expand
    • Had an advanced government system
      • Well-organized bureaucracy, highly centralized administration
    • Declined in late 16th century as a result of internal conflicts and Moroccan invasions
  • Russian Empire (1721 to 1917)
    • World’s largest country by land area and third most populous
    • Ruled by Romanov dynasty
      • Strong government, rigid hierarchy
      • Tsar had absolute power in this autocracy
    • Multiethnic state with over 100 ethnic groups in its borders
    • Major player in world affairs
    • Dissolved after Russian Revolution of 1917 and establishing of USSR
  • Ming Empire (China) (1368–1644)
    • Han Chinese established Ming Dynasty after overthrowing Mongolian Yuan Dynasty
      • Known for strong government, cultural achievements, economic growth
    • Period of relative peace and prosperity in China
    • Finished Great Wall of China and constructed Forbidden City in Beijing
      • Economy based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing
    • Fell after it was deposed by the Qing Dynasty
  • Qing Empire (China) (1644–1911)
    • China’s final imperial dynasty founded by Manchu people
    • Centralized government, social hierarchy, bureaucratic rule system
    • Multicultural state with Han Chinese, Manchus, Mongols, other ethnic groups
    • Experienced significant economic, social, and cultural development
    • Major player in Industrial Revolution and global power in 18th and early 19th centuries
    • Xinhai Revolution (1911 Revolution) ended imperial rule in China
  • Incan Empire (c.1200–1533)
    • South American Empire by Andes Mountains
      • Largest empire in pre-columbian americas
    • Had an advanced system of government
      • Well-organized bureaucracy, strong centralized administration
    • Known for impressive architectural achievements
      • Roads, aqueducts, terraced agriculture
    • Conquered by spanish in early 16th century
  • Aztec (Mexica Empire) (c.1300 to 1521)
    • Native American civilization in central Mexico
      • Established Aztec empire known for its sophisticated government system
        • Organized bureaucracy, strong centralized administration
        • Architectural and artistic accomplishments
        • Military prowess
    • Religion based on worship of a pantheon of gods
      • Known for elaborate ceremonies and human sacrifices
    • Conquered by Spanish in early 16th century
  • Tokugawa Japan (1603-1868)
    • Tokugawa shogunate was a feudal government led by the Tokugawa family
      • Rule led to a period of political stability and economic growth
      • Used strong, centralized government to keep control
      • Isolated japan and had strict trade regulations to maintain control
    • Time of cultural and artistic flourishing
    • Meiji restoration ended feudal rule and Tokugawa shogunate was deposed in 1868

• Maritime Empires
  • British Empire (c.1500-c.2000)
    • Centered on British Isles
      • Largest empire in history with territories on every continent
      • Categorized by global trade network and system of colonies
    • Major player in world affairs, helping to shape the modern world
    • Declined in 20th century
  • Spanish Empire (1492 - 1968)
    • Global empire centered in spain that ruled over a large portion of the world
      • Territories in Europe, Americas, Africa, Asia
    • Distinguished by powerful centralized government and a vast network of trade and colonization
    • Began to decline in 18th century
  • Portuguese Empire (1415 - 1999)
    • Ruled over significant portion of world with territories in Africa, Asia, Americas
      • Strong centralized government, global trade and colonization network
    • Declined in 19th century
  • French Empire (1534–1980)
    • Centered in france, ruled over the majority of the world with many colonies in Africa, and others in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia
    • Characterized by centralized government and a vast network of trade and colonization
    • French revolution 1789-1799
    • Declined in 19th century
  • Dutch Empire (1595 - 1975)
    • Empire centered in netherlands
      • Had territories in Americas, Africa, Asia
      • Strong centralized government and global network of trade and colonization
    • Declined in 19th century

• Differences between Land-Based and Maritime Empires
  • Land based had most of power and wealth come from the land
    • Rich agriculture, profitable trade routes
  • Maritime based had most of power and wealth come from trade overseas
    • Colonies overseas, controlling overseas trade routes
  • Administrative systems
    • Religious Justification: French/English (Divine Right of Kings), China (Mandate of Heaven), Songhai (Songhai Islam)
      • Claiming connection to the divine as the right to rule
    • Military elites: Ottoman (Devshirme), Japan (Samurai)
      • System of warriors loyal to ruler which helps them maintain power
    • Both were often linked to gain more legitimacy
  • Social Hierarchies
    • Based on Race/Culture: Qing Dynasty (restrictive policy on Han Chinese), Spanish Empire (casta system)
    • Based on Religion: Ottoman (Millet System), Mughal (Zamindar/Rajput system)
    • Millet system gave each religion its own political zone
      • Islamic zone highest, other zones free to practice their own religion
  • Maritime Empires
    • Trading Post Empires: Portuguese in Africa/india, Dutch in Southeast Asia (Dutch East India Company)
    • Colonial Empires: French, British, Spanish in North America; Spanish in South America
    • Europeans were often trading posts while colonial empires were some european countries that set up their own populations in conquered land

• During the time, maritime empires didn’t grow necessarily b/c of gunpowder, but because of other factors

• Europeans had long benefited from trade on Silk Road and Indian Ocean
  • However, many of those lands were muslim controlled
  • Europeans wanted another way to Asia to establish trade on their own terms
  • Needed new technology from ships to do so
    • Learned about sailing from Greeks, Asians, Muslims

• Technologies inherited
  • Charts of wind patterns and astronomy for direction
    • Became more complex and detailed than ancient ones
  • Astrolabe and magnetic compass to find more direction
    • Astrolabe determined latitude
  • Lateen sail
    • Allowed sailors to tack into the wind
    • Ships with square and lateen sails could travel further and expand trade routes

• Maritime trade technologies from Portuguese and Dutch
  • Portuguese created a new ship called the Caravel
    • Smaller, more navigable ship
    • Fast ships because of combo of square and lateen sails
    • Could also carry large amounts of cargo for trade despite speed
  • Dutch created a ship called the Fluyt
    • Was revolutionary because at the time, most merchant ships were built for conversion to military which meant they were expensive and had large crews
    • Fluyts were built exclusively for trade meaning they were cheaper to build and needed less labor
      • Could also carry more cargo
  • Just b/c they were not land based did not mean they used gunpowder
    • Used cannons on ships to take land and establish new empires

• Motives for 15th/16th century Europeans
  • Wealth
    • Gold, silver, resources
    • Establish trade routes to increase own country’s wealth
  • Power
    • Expansion of empires
    • Colonies
  • Spreading Christianity

• Mercantilism: increase power and wealth of the state
  • Policies
    • Restrict import of certain goods to protect domestic industries
    • Subsidize exports to make them more competitive
    • Establish colonies
    • Regulate trade (ex. tariffs)
    • Encourage the accumulation of gold and silver

• Results
  • Portugal
    • Mapping the world
      • Discovered Cape of Good Hope in South Africa
    • 1497-98 Sea route to India: Vasco da Gama
      • Around South Africa
    • Exploration of African coast
      • Established trading posts and colonies
      • Gold, ivory, slave trade
  • Spain
    • Conquest of the Americas
      • Christopher Columbus in 1492: first European to explore Americas
      • Colonies in Central and South America
    • Circumnavigation of the globe
      • 1519 Ferdinand Magellan
        • Demonstrate power of Spanish empire
        • Colonized the Philippines
  • Britain
    • Exploration of North America
      • John Cabot exploration→ claimed east coast of Canada
        • Newfoundland: first British settlement
      • 1607: Jamestown, Virginia
    • Exploration of Pacific
      • Late 1700s: James Cook
        • Geography, climate, peoples
        • Explored Australia
  • France
    • North America
      • Canada, U.S., Caribbean
      • Fur and timber trade
    • Arctic exploration
      • 1534: Jacques Cartier
      • Developed technologies to explore Arctic
    • Africa
      • Explored & claimed territory
  • Dutch
    • East Indies
      • Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore
      • Dutch East India Company (VOC): 1602-1799
      • Spice, gold trade
    • Arctic Exploration
      • Whaling stations: used whale oil for fuel and lamp

• Columbian Exchange was the meeting of Europe and Americas
  • Meant disaster for natives of Americas and profitability for Europeans
  • Introduced new ways of life and death through mutual sharing of the east and west
  • Definition: the transfer of animals, plants, and diseases from the East to the West and vice versa
  • Named after Columbus who sailed to Hispaniola in 1492

• Diseases
  • Natives in Americas had no immunities to new diseases as they had been separated for a long time
    • Smallpox was the most devastating disease, an airborne disease
    • Responsible for large scale death in Americas, killed 50% of all native population in the Americas
    • More Europeans brought malaria, measles, flu, etc.

• Animals and Food
  • Sharing of animals and food went both ways
  • New foods and animals had massive effects
  • Europeans introduction:
    • Europeans introduced pigs, cows, wheat, and grapes to the Americas
      • Became staples of the American diet
    • Introduced horses which were very beneficial to the natives in the plains region who could now use them to hunt buffalo with greater efficiency
      • Horses also provided advantage against other tribes
  • Western introduction:
    • Mesoamericans introduced very important food items to Europeans
      • Cacao, Maize, Potatoes
      • Expanded European diet and population growth

• Agriculture and Labor
  • Explorers were there looking for gold and silver originally, but found that their colonies could get rich through farming
  • Needed labor to create large scale farms
    • At first they enslaved natives but they were able to escape as they knew the land well
    • Portuguese in Brazil found massive success doing this with sugarcane
    • Began to import enslaved laborers from Africa, especially from Kongo Kingdom
  • As demand for sugarcane and tobacco spiked, so did the demand for slaves.
    • Millions of africans were forced from their homes into the trans-Atlantic slave trade
    • Despite the large amount of slaves being exported, African population saw an overall growth from the amount of new foods being introduced
      • Yams and manioc introduced to Africa from places like brazil

• Environmental impact
  • At first the natives had been farming for centuries and had created a way to live sustainably
  • European colonists began to overharvest and use the land more aggressively
  • Large scale deforestation and depletion of the soil
  • Strained water supply and introduced pollution

• Portuguese established trading post empires in Africa
  • By setting up ports of trade at strategic locations along the African coast, they grew rich by controlling trade
  • Trading posts usually established in cooperation with African leaders
  • Traded gunpowder weapons for enslaved people
  • Once African leaders had guns, they had an advantage over neighboring people

• Some African people were open to influence from the Europeans
  • Some african states grew very wealthy by trading enslaved people
  • Also saw cultural borrowing from Europeans
    • Kingdom of Kongo, King Alfonso I converted to Christianity
    • Christian influence in Koongo art
  • African states also raided other states to enslave the prisoners of war

• Japan was closed off from outside European influence
  • Originally, when dutch and portuguese arrived with merchants and missionaries, the Japanese were open to them
  • As the japanese noticed the growing European and Christian influence influence, they closed off all trade with europeans and tried to stop all foreign influence

• British in India
  • British drove French out of India during the 7 Years’ War gaining significant influence in India
  • British East India Company joint stock company that gained influence in India
    • At first was pretty restricted by Mughal leaders
    • Gained influence by pitting hindus and muslims against each other in their rivalry and consolidated power for themselves
    • With help of sepoys, indian soldiers, the British moved inland and controlled much of India

• Europeans in America
  • Columbus brought diseases to the Americas
  • With disease and advanced weapons, they toppled the Aztec and Incan Empires
    • 1521 New Spain established on Aztec land
    • 1572 conquered Incas
  • Rivalries between spanish and portuguese
    • Both wanted to have control over America
      • Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494
      • Split Americas along a meridian (vertical line)
        • Portuguese had everything east of it (Brazil)
  • Other Europeans in americas
    • Dutch, British in North america; French, British in Canada

• Indian Ocean Trade
  • More europeans involved, but Indian Trade Network continued with these changes as normal
  • Trade used to be maintained by ethnic and religious ties
  • Portuguese’ military might changed trade to be favorable for themselves

• Coerced Labor: supported expansion
  • Several forms of coerced labor:
    • Hacienda system: Spanish government grants haciendas (land holdings) to conquistadors who could farm, lease, or control land
      • Once people started working for the lords, it was likely they wouldn't stop b/c they accumulated debt to the owners
      • Sugarcane and labor made owners very wealthy
    • Encomienda system: system of labor where the beneficiary of the encomienda system was granted responsibility for a certain number of natives
      • Nobles gave protection and christian education to the natives in return for tribute (often labor)
      • Similar to feudal europe: natives weren’t slaves but weren’t free
    • Mit’a system: Existing system of labor in Incan empire where people had to work on public projects for a given number of days per year
      • Spanish came to Americas in search of gold and silver
      • Found lots of labor from Incas and exploited mit’a system to force the Incans to work as slaves in silver mines
    • Chattel Slavery: where people are owned as property
      • Africa had already sold slaves in Indian Ocean Trade, but Atlantic Slave Trade devastated Africa because it exported slaves at a massive scale
      • Many slaves were African because Natives were defeated by european diseases or could escape easily because they knew the land well
    • Indentured Servitude: attempted by British colonists in North America
      • People would work for a set amount of time and then set free
      • However, labor was temporary because of the contract so Chattel Slavery was favored

• Brutal Middle Passage
  • Packed into ships made specifically to hold slaves across the Atlantic
    • So tightly packed that most of the slaves died from disease or suffocation before even arriving
  • Many slaves formed communities among the displaced

• Economic Strategies to increase power
  • Dominant economic system of the European colonizing states was mercantilism
    • Mercantilism: fixed amount of wealth in the world
      • Main principles:
      • Gaining wealth means someone else loses wealth
      • Wealth is measured in gold and silver
      • State’s main economic goal was to create a favorable balance of trade
        • Want more exports than imports
      • Colonies exist to enrich the mother country
        • Especially with raw materials
  • Joint-Stock companies
    • New companies formed based on this principle
      • Exploration was funded by private investors who pooled money together instead of government
      • Shared profits and losses
    • Two important examples
      • British East India Company
      • Dutch East India Company
  • In Spain and Portugal, kings and queens funded exploration

• Infusion of gold and silver into world economies from the Americas had a profound effect
  • Called commercial revolution
  • Now goods were being traded for gold and silver rather than other goods
  • Chinese made silver their currency resulting in a high demand for silver
    • Traded luxury goods for silver
    • Didn’t have any silver mines themselves so all silver came from the americas or foreign trade

• Triangular Trade
  • New massive system of trade in Atlantic Ocean
    • Manufactured goods traded from Europe to west Africa
    • Enslaved people transported from West Africa to Americas
    • Raw materials from Americas traded to Europe

• Indian Ocean Trade routes were still going strong
  • States vied for dominance over these routes
    • Big rivalry developed between Europeans and Muslims
    • 1509 Portuguese defeated Muslim forces in a battle over trade rights
      • Defeated naval battle due to advanced ships but lost against Moroccan muslims on land

• Monopolies
  • When one entity has total domination over a particular market
    • More specifically, companies with exclusive trading rights at given ports
    • Spanish had a monopoly over tobacco growth in the Americas

• Continuity of traditional regional markets with trade
  • Trade of peasant and artisan goods flourished too
    • Silk from China, cotton from India, wool and linen from Europe

• How development of these empires affected the political, economic, and religious cultural dynamics in the places where they existed
  • African Slave trade
    • Some areas were very weakened: Kingdom of the Kongo
    • Trade was so profitable that the trade continued
    • Most of the slaves were men so many more women than men
      • Led to rise of polygyny
    • Saw a decline in population, but the introduction of new foods from the Americas like maize and manioc resulted in an overall growth in population size
  • Belief systems of conquered people
    • Rulers had to decide what people believed
    • Some were tolerable: Mongols and Akbar allowed tolerance of all religions
    • Most europeans were the opposite
      • Christianity was proselytizing
      • Many of the native cultural and social systems in Americas were wiped clean with the many diseases from the Europeans
      • Even those who survived had their culture destroyed
      • Hernan Cortes burned all native people’s books and moved Spanish culture into those places
  • As religion spread into new territories, two responses
    • 1. Syncretism
      • Blending of two beliefs into one
      • Many africans melded their traditional religions with European Christianity
      • Many indigenous people in americas took christian beliefs and combined with celebration of their own holy days
    • 2. Conflict
      • Sunni/Shia divide
        • Intensified by Ottoman and Safavid (see un 3)
      • Protestant reformation
        • Split in Christian church that separated Roman Catholics from the newly formed Protestants
        • Split occurred for many reasons
          • Most important was different interpretation of the doctrine of salvation
          • Also selling of indulgences
          • Led by Martin Luther who nailed 95 theses highlighting faults of the catholic church

• State expansion → resistance and rebellion
  • Both internal (in home country) and external (colony)
  • Portugal
    • 17th century: Queen Nzinga ruled over Ndongo and Matamba (present day Angola/ Central Africa)
      • Leadership, diplomacy, military powers
    • Slave raids by Portugal
    • Nzinga Allied initially with Portugal to protect import of guns
    • As Portuguese hostility and expansionism increased, Nzinga turned to the Dutch
      • Defeated Portugal in 1647
      • Dutch retreated forces after a year
    • Nzinga personally led troops into battle
    • After her death, Portuguese controlled region until 1975
  • France
    • Fronde civil disturbances (1648-1653) attempted to curb royal power
      • Internal
  • Russia
    • Serfdom oppression increased by 15th century
      • Tied to land despite abolition in other European countries
      • Free peasants forced into serfdom with debt
    • Cossacks: escaped serfs organized as free peasants in the steppes
      • Rebelled against Catherine the Great (Pugachev rebellion)
        • Empress from 1762 to 1796
        • Military expansion, modernization, supported arts
      • Suppressed by the gov’t and increased oppression to prevent another conflict
  • South Asia
    • Mughals (Muslim) ruled region in 17th century
      • Maratha rebellion 1680-1707
        • Hindu warriors fearful of minority rule
        • Killed Mughal leader and established Maratha Empire until 1818
      • Maratha Empire
        • Powerful cavalry and infantry
        • Declined in 19th century by losing war against British East India Company
  • Spanish Empire
    • 1680: Pueblo Revolt
      • Indigenous warriors resisting to forced labor, cultural suppression, and religious persecution
      • Drove Spanish out of present day New Mexico for over a decade
  • British Empire
    • Maroons in Jamaica
      • British took control over Spanish in 1655
      • Spanish slave owners fled → slaves escaped and formed settlements (Maroons)
      • Revolts some successful but suppressed
    • 1663: Gloucester County Rebellion
      • Virginia
      • African slaves and white indentured servants allied to demand freedom
      • Created racist policies to prevent commingling
      • Some rights to white servants
    • 1675: Metacom’s War
      • Native tribes tried to drive British off New England
      • 14 months of bloody rebellion; Natives lost
    • Internal: Glorious Revolution
      • England was majority Protestant
      • 1685: Catholic King James II rose to power and implemented anti-Protestant policies
      • William and Mary II pressured him into exile and took throne without bloodshed
        • Accepted joint powers with parliament and signed English Bill of Rights

• Major effects of the expansion of sea-based (and land) empires was the changing of social hierarchies

• Ottoman Empire
  • Social structure built around a warrior aristocracy
  • They competed for power with the ulama, islamic scholars who held power
  • Janissary corps also wanted power themselves
    • Staged coups to overthrow the sultan
    • Unrest from string of incapable sultans
      • Power shift in sultanate
      • Viziers, advisors to the sultanate, consolidated lots of power for themselves
  • Women and minorities
    • Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 during the Spanish Inquisition, found sanctuary in the Ottoman empire, especially in Istanbul
      • Still had to pay jizya and confined to certain parts of the city
    • Women had little direct power but many of the sultan’s wives and concubines vied to promote their own sons to positions of power
      • Harem politics
        • Particular group of women had lots of power

• Qing Dynasty
  • Established in 1644 by Manchu people
    • Manchus maintained a few distinctively Chinese Institutions
      • Civil service exam, bureaucracy
      • Partly to legitimize power in eyes of the Chinese
      • Majority of chinese population was Han chinese
      • However, Manchus were against Han culture
      • Government officials had to wear their hair in the braided queues of the Manchurians
        • Would be executed if they did not which resulted in the massacre of hundreds of thousands of Han chinese who resisted their rule

• Europe
  • Social hierarchy: royalty, then nobility
    • They began to struggle for power
    • Louis XIV won the struggle by removing nobility’s power and making them live at Palace at Versailles
  • Russia social hierarchy: Tsar, then boyars (landed aristocracy), then merchants, then peasants
    • Many of the peasants fell into poverty and became serfs
    • Conflict between boyars and tsar
      • Boyars opposed expansionist policies of Tsar Ivan the IV
      • Tsar entered armed conflict against the boyars and won
        • Ivan confiscated their power and made them move to Moscow (capital) to oversee them (similar to Japan and France)

• Americas
  • Formation of completely new social hierarchy with intro of europeans
    • Social hierarchy was based on ancestry and race called casta system
    • Order is as follows: Peninsulares (those born on Iberian peninsula), criolles/creoles (europeans born in americas), castas (mixed ancestry)
      • Order within castas:
      • Mestizos: mixed native and european ancestry
      • Mulattos: mixed african and european ancestry
      • Zambos: mixed african and native ancestry
      • Indigenous people
      • African people
    • Casta system similar to hindu caste system
      • Wherever you were born you stayed in and it was based on ancestry
      • However, those in casta system could marry up a class but that was rare

• Global trade
  • Factors that made it possible
    • Economical
      • Western Europe had growing desires for expansion of trade
    • Political
      • Europe wanted colonies to spread influence and get resources
    • Technological
      • New: astrolabe, compass
      • Improved safety and accuracy
  • Exchanges
    • Goods
    • Columbian Exchange
      • Afro-Eurasia and Americas
      • Diffusion of people, religions, culture, science, and technology
      • Plants, animals
        • Beans, corn, potatoes, tobacco into Afro-Eurasia
        • Sugar, coffee, rice, cattle into Americas
      • Diseases
        • Indigenous had to fight new diseases
          • Smallpox, malaria, measles, yellow fever
          • Lack of immunity and medical advancements created high mortality rates
        • Europeans brought back and spread STDs

• Agriculture
  • Continuity: importance
    • Important for financial sustainment
    • Primary source of employment within rural areas
  • Changes
    • Technology/techniques
      • Crop rotation, heavy plow
      • Increased productivity and output
      • Shift from subsistence agriculture to commercial
        • Farmers made food for commercial instead of only for themselves
    • Increased demand for labor
      • Raw materials and finished products became more popular
      • Atlantic Slave Trade utilized in colonies
        • Brutal and inhumane conditions
  • Impact of changes
    • Social structure
      • Class
        • Middle class increased in Europe
          • Landowners raised wealth
          • Economic power → political influence
        • Landless laborers faced worsen conditions (globally)
          • Rise in commercial agriculture displaced rural communities
          • Lost communal land
          • Traditional social structures eroded
      • Gender
        • Commercial agriculture changed gender roles
          • Men: cash crops
          • Women: domestic tasks and household maintenance
        • Africa: demographic crisis from Atlantic slave trade
          • Men sold to work overseas
          • Women and children had to take on male roles
          • Single parent and polygamy
    • Environmental
      • Deforestation
      • Decreased biodiversity
      • Cash crops required water management
        • Negative impact on aquatic ecosystems

• Empires
  • Expansion
    • Colonization
      • Spanish and Portugal started with Aztec and Inca
      • French, Dutch, English in Americas
        • English: Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 first
      • European powers established trading posts in Africa coasts
      • British colonies in India
      • Dutch trading posts in Indonesia
  • Mercantilism
    • Nation's wealth and power were directly linked to the amount of gold and silver
    • Wealth is increased by increasing exports and decreasing imports
    • Europe extracted colonies for resources and used their market for exporting goods
    • Paved way for capitalism
  • Conflicts
    • French and Indian War (1754-1763)
      • British and French colonies fought for Ohio River Valley
        • Native tribes allied
      • British victory
    • Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
      • British vs. French and respective allies
      • Fought in Europe, N.America, India
      • British victory
        • Gained French colonies in Canada, India, and Caribbean
    • Dutch-Portuguese War (1602-1654)
      • Fought for trade routes in Asia, Africa, America
      • Ended with Treaty of the Hague
        • Dutch control of East Indies
        • Portuguese control of Brazil
    • Anglo-Mughal Wars (1686-1757)
      • British East India Company vs. Mughal and Maratha Empire
      • British gained control of parts of India

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• Changes due to Industrial Revolution which was caused in part due to Enlightenment thought

• Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason to reconsider the accepted ideas and social institutions of the time
  • Mix of Scientific Revolution and Humanism of the Renaissance
  • Emphasis of Enlightenment was the application of human reason to natural laws
    • Humanism
    • Thought that the world was governed by a set of natural laws
    • Progress would only occur if people understood those natural laws
  • Before enlightenment, most of what people believed came from religion, tradition, or ancestors
  • Enlightenment realized that people should no longer accept what is true anything that comes from outside of us

• Francis Bacon and the ideas of empiricism
  • The idea that reality is discerned through the senses and the only way to know the nature of reality is through the senses
  • Beginning of scientific experiments and scientific method

• Thomas Hobbes author of Leviathan
  • Hobbes believed that humans have no moral compass unless there are predetermined rules to say what actions are good or bad
  • Believed that justice only exists when the sovereign is established.

• John Locke contributed to political side of things
  • Two Treatises on Government
    • Argued that divine right of kings was a deeply flawed organization of the political hierarchy
    • Sayid that humans are endowed with natural rights like life, liberty, and property that are granted by virtue of being a human
    • Argued for Social contract: humans and government are in social contract together → power to govern are in the hands of the people, but people give up some of their power in to a government who protects their natural rights
      • Also implicitly argued that the people should be able to overthrow bad governments
      • Consequence of these ideas was revolution
    • Enlightenment thought led to fall of empires and proliferation of constitutional governments around the world

• Led to growing nationalism in many places
  • A strong identification of a group of people who share an ethnic identity and language
  • Prior to this people were loyal to a ruler, but now became loyal to nation
  • Many empires were multiethnic so nationalistic thought threatened these empires

• Adam Smith and enlightenment economic thought
  • Adam Smith critiqued mercantilist economies in Europe
    • Mercantilism required a heavy hand from the government
    • Smith argued for laissez-faire economics
      • French for “let alone”
      • Principles: no limit on wealth, people should be left alone for supply and demand, minimal government intervention
  • Pioneer of capitalism, argued that government should not be involved in economy because it will run itself based on principles supply and demand
  • Said that if people were free to make economic decisions they would be guided by the invisible hand of the market and benefit all of society

• Enlightenment and religion
  • People began to reevaluate their relationship religion, especially christianity
  • Rise of Deism: Enlightenment idea that God doesn’t intervene in society opposing some events in the bible
    • Idea that God created all things in the beginning including natural laws, but after creating it, let it be
      • The only way to find god is to understand his ways through contemplation of natural laws
    • Sees god as a watchmaker who put all the gears and springs in places and is letting it tick away

• Not everyone embraced enlightenment changes
  • Known as conservatives
  • Conservatism is a strong belief in tradition and the shunning of ideology in favor of practical ideas

• Enlightenment and women and slavery
  • Because of the enlightenment, many women found power in their voices
    • Mary Wollstonecraft in England wrote a book on the Rights of Women where she argued that if women were given the chance, they would be able to achieve just as much as men
    • Seneca Falls convention in U.S. was a rally for women’s rights and suffrage
      • Created American Declaration of Sentiments which was the Declaration of Independence with key changes
        • “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men and women are created equal”
        • Argued that women ought to be less dependent on their husbands in terms of property and income
  • Also affected institutions of slavery and serfdom
    • Abolitionist movement gathered steam with ideas of unalienable rights
      • Slave trade banned in U.S. in 1808, but slavery itself was not banned
        • Slave population grew dramatically even without slave trade
      • Fight between slaveholders and abolitionists led to the Civil War and Abolition of Slavery in 1865
    • Russia, due in part to enlightenment thought, had 23 million serfs emancipated

• Enlightenment thought pioneered ideas of natural rights and social contract (see above)
  • Said that rights came from god (or the fact of being human) not government
  • Life, liberty, and property, resulting in social contract with government
  • People began to think that the government should protect their rights, should be run by democratic processes, and should be constitutional

• Ideas led to revolution in north america (American Revolution (1765 – 1791))
  • Colonies had grown functionally independent of British crown
    • Geographically isolated, and they had no representation in parliament despite being an important source of wealth for Britain
    • Taxation without representation
  • July 4 1776, U.S. created Declaration of Independence
    • Written by Thomas Jefferson, used a massive amount of Enlightenment thought, especially John Locke’s ideas
      • “Unalienable rights”, “governments… derive their powers from the consent of the governed”
    • With the help of the French and the advantage of fighting from home, the United States were established

• American Revolution provided inspiration for the French Revolution
  • 1780’s France was in deep economic troubles due mainly to war spending
  • King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates-General in 1789
    • Estates-General: official body representing the three estates of the French
      • Clergy, nobility, commoners
      • Even though commoners had 98% of the population, they only had 1 vote
  • Third Estate broke away and formed their own representative body called the National Assembly because they were always outvoted by the clergy and nobility
    • Louis XVI threatened to arrest the leaders of the National Assembly
    • In response, on July 14, 1789, an angry crowd stormed the Bastille, a prison which symbolized monarchical abuse and the corruption of the aristocracy
  • Revolutionary fervor spread throughout France inciting peasants from all over to rise up against their nobles
    • Louis XVI was forced to accept a new government arrangement that gave power to national assembly
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen written by the French revolution with enlightenment thought and inspired by American Declaration of Independence
    • Took power away from Louis XVI
    • Louis XVI fought against it which initiated a period of the French Revolution called the Reign of Terror led by Maximilien Robespierre
      • Leader of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793 and executed more than 17,000 enemies of the Revolution
      • Overthrown and arrested by the National Convention
      • Louis XVI executed during the Reign of Terror

• Haitian revolution
  • French colony made up of two different groups of people
    • A few French plantation owners and a large amount of enslaved Africans working for the plantation owners
    • Haiti was inspired by French Revolution and revolted against the plantation owners, killing them and destroying their property
  • In 1791, a Haitian named Toussaint L’ouverture took charge and led the rebellion against the French
    • Surprising for world when the enslaved people won and created an independent government
    • First successful revolution of enslaved people and the first black-led independent nation in the western hemisphere

• New Zealand Wars
  • When it was annexed in 1840, Britain established dominance over the natives
    • Natives (maori) did not like being ruled by foreigners and joined together to fight back british
    • By 1872, the British had crushed the rebellion and pushed the Maori back further

• Latin American revolution
  • Creoles in Latin America began to think about their daily lives, especially with Enlightenment thought
    • They wanted to revolt themselves for a few reasons
      • Many were wealthy because of agriculture pursuits, but because of the mercantilist policies of Spain, they were losing lots of profit
      • Often were not given positions of authority in favor of the peninsulares
  • Simon Bolivar led creoles against Spain
    • Gained chunk of land called Gran Colombia
    • Created a document with enlightenment thought as well for South America
    • Bolivar argued for the necessity of constitutional republics, and of natural rights

• Nationalism in the unification of Italy and Germany
  • These unifications were not revolutions but were similar
  • Italy
    • Since fall of Rome, the Italian peninsula had been divided into independent and competing states
      • 1848, Count Cavor, the primitive minister of one of those states, led a charge to unify Italy under his house: the House of Savoy
      • His house was the only native Italian dynasty so he believed he should be fit to rule
    • Through strategic alliances and battles, Cavor was able to unite Italy
  • Germany
    • 1848, Prussian leader Otto von bismarck engineered three wars that united the German people in spirit against the enemy
      • in 1871, he united them in a nation when he founded the new unified German Empire (1871–1914)

• Industrial Revolution: process of producing goods with machines in order to make labor more efficient
  • Had a multitude of cultural and economic effects

• Beginning in England and Reasons
  • 1. Proximity to water → Island country with abundant access to river and canals allowing for easy and inexpensive trade
  • 2. Lots of Raw materials → Lots of coal and iron in England
  • 3. Productive agriculture → advances in agriculture increased harvests
    • Crop rotation was introduced to maintain soil fertility
    • Seed drill allowed farmers to plant seeds in the right location and depth
  • 4. Urbanization → Higher population from higher amounts of food with productive agriculture
    • Less demand for labor on farms so many people moved to cities for jobs → migration
  • 5. Legal protection of private property → enabled entrepreneurs to take risks and build businesses without fearing for government taking what they worked for
  • 6. Access to foreign resources → England had created a global empire and thus had access to all raw materials of their colonies
    • Had colonies in all parts of the globe so had access to every material necessary
  • 7. Accumulation of Capital → British capitalists had generated a huge amount of capital, especially from the slave trade
    • They began to invest the capital into entrepreneurial opportunities
  • 8. Factory system
    • Factory is a place where goods for sale are manufactured
    • Began to produce these goods in mass
    • Richard Arkwright: father of factory, invented water frame, a wheel that would spin in water
    • James Hargraves: invented spinning jenny in 1760
      • Combination of spinning jenny and water frame allowed machines to make textiles much faster than any human
    • Eli Whitney: created idea for interchangeable parts
      • Before, weapons would have individual parts only for that model or brand. Eli Whitney said that the parts should be interchangeable between design of gun
      • Manufacturing became focused on parts of the product, not the whole product
      • Producers no longer needed skilled laborers, just needed people to do repetitive simple tasks that together would create factory system

• Starts with Britain- best conditions for industrialization
  • Waterways for transport
  • No wars unlike other European countries
  • Resources: iron, coal, colonial

• Spread of Industrialization
  • First wave: Belgium, France, Germany
  • Second wave: U.S., Japan, Russia
  • Industrialization driven by entrepreneurs and business class
    • France
      • Delays
        • Political turmoil- French revolution
        • Agricultural revolution delay
          • Enclosure movement (privatization of land) delayed
      • Still had overseas colonies, access to waterways, and large labor force looking for employment
        • Especially at the end of revolution, peasants are not tied to land anymore
    • Germany
      • Politically fragmented until 1871
        • Due to reformation and Napoleon
        • Takes quicker to stabilize than France
      • Became a leading producer of steel and coal
        • Lots of natural resources
    • U.S.
      • 1900s- became leading industrial force
        • At peace, no civil war/fighting/revolution
        • Lots of waterways
        • Rising capitalism
          • Gov’t protects banking and investment, similar to England
      • Its Human Capital (work force) was a key factor
        • Huge migrating workforce in late 19th/early 20th
          • Political instability in Europe → mass immigration to the U.S. from Europe and Asia
          • Irish and German, often in urban areas
          • Machine churners with low wage, unskilled work
            • Led to discrimination against immigrants
  • Industrialization driven by governments
    • Russia
      • Delayed by imperial, out of touch rule
      • 1861: Alexander II abolished serfdom
      • 1891: Alexander III began building Trans-Siberian railroad
        • Took 20 years
      • Economy remained largely agricultural
      • Later, Russian Revolution during WWI makes Russia focus on industrial output
    • Japan
      • First country in Asia to industrialize
        • Motivated by self-preservation
          • Repel western influence (Christian missionaries, etc)
          • Preserve values and traditions
      • “Defensive Modernization” Mid-19th
        • Keep up with the West to compete
  • Share of Middle Eastern and Asian goods in global market decreased
    • Continued manufacturing but not at an industrial scale
      • Ex. Ship building and ironwork in India- faced tariffs by British

• There were two industrial revolutions, distinguished by time frame and technology

• First IR took place c. mid 18th century to c. mid 19th century
  • Technology: steam engine invented by James Watt
    • Relied on coal to heat up water and produce steam that drove engines
    • Originally factories were powered by water frame, but new steam engine allowed factories to be built anywhere
    • Resulted in factories being built all over the place
  • Was also used in ships and locomotives
    • Now ships could be transported in any direction with steam engines so trade in all industrialized nations increased (upstream rivers)
    • Trains did same
  • Trans-siberian railroad completed in Russia meant flourishing trade with eastern states like china
  • Trans-continental railroad in United states meant more trade and migration

• Second IR took place c. late 19th century to c. early 20th century
  • Led by U.S., U.K., Germany
  • Used and produced steel, gas power, and communications
  • Steel: stronger material than iron, began to become mass-produced
    • Bessemer Process: Blasting hot iron with air to remove impurities and creating steel
    • Allowed people to create mass quantities of steel
  • Gas Power: by mid 1800s, oil wells drilled everywhere
    • Raw oil could be refined into kerosene and gasoline
    • Kerosene was used for lamps, but gasoline became main fuel sources in
    • Internal combustion engine developed in late 19th century where ignited gasoline instead of steam pushed pistons
  • Revolution in Communication
    • Major developments in harnessing electricity resulted in telegraph
      • Invented by Samuel Morse in 1830s and 40s, and it could send pulses of electricity in pulses of long and short bursts along electrical wires at great distances
      • Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone in 1876

• Consequences of both IR
  • Increase of trade
    • New transport technologies with ships, locomotives, combustion engine
  • Waves of migration
    • Easier to move to different parts of the globe and communicate with family members left behind
    • Easier for people to accept moving to new areas

• Russia
  • Encounters with industrial states
    • Used to be an absolute monarch
    • Failed interactions
    • 1861: abolition of serfdom: ready workforce for industrialization
  • 1890s: Russia launches industrialization
    • Directed by government
    • paid by foreign investments
  • Steel, coal, textiles
  • Trans-Siberian Railway
  • Fourth largest coal producer
    • Still relied on agriculture

• Ottoman Empire
  • Encounters with industrial states
    • Strong sword of Islam → the Sick man of Europe
  • Muhammad Ali in Egypt
    • Sultan was sultan in name only here
    • Agreed to local control
    • Reform
      • Military, schools, newspaper
      • Overtaxing peasants → give up land
      • Controlled entire cotton production
      • Major textile factories
      • Cairo: weapons, Alexandria: shipbuilding
      • Considered first modern ruler of Egypt, although technically under sultanate

• Causes of Japanese Industrial Movement

• U.S. pushed for an open-door policy
  • If they refuse America, they’ll have to surrender to American navy

• China’s experience with Western states
  • In return, China had been forced to accept/buy opium

• Signed unequal treaties to open Japan

• Defensive Industrialization

• Dissatisfaction with the shogun

• The Meiji Restoration
  • Used family name of emperor

• Reforms
  • Modeled after Europe/U.S.
  • Abolition of feudalism
  • Institution of constitution/individual rights
  • Expanded education and military

• State-run industrialization

• Consequences

• Successful industrial economy

• Elimination of unequal treaties
  • 1902: treaty declared Japan equal to other powers

• Stark contrast to other Asian states

• Economic shift in states with IR
  • States that had long embraced the economic system of mercantilism (see above) now abandoned it in favor of laissez-faire capitalism (see above)
  • Shift led to new ways of organizing business
    • Descendents of joint-stock companies
      • Corporations: worked similar to joint-stock companies but introduced limited liability (limited liability joint-stock companies)
      • The shareholders gained all benefits from company’s success but had limited liability for company’s failures
        • Could only lose the amount of money they invested in the company

• Rise of multinational corporations
  • Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking corporation
    • Established by british
    • After the opium wars, british merchants flooded into China in order to establish trade
    • They needed a bank to finance their wares
      • Bank established branches in many nations including china and japan
  • Unilever Corporation
    • British and Dutch partnered to create a company that sold household items such as soap
    • Created factories in many different nations
  • The multinational corporations became wealthy on a massive scale

• Social consequences of IR
  • Rise of capitalism and profusion of manufactured goods on the market grew consumer culture in middle class and in many industrialized societies
  • In general standards of living grew and people had more money to spend on consumer products
  • There were only so many goods that people could buy but companies continued to improve their manufacturing methods and produced more products than any population could buy
  • Rise of advertising industry
    • Worked by making people feel bad for not owning “x” product
  • Leisure culture: people spent long days working in factories so wanted escape
    • Pubs became popular leading to modern problem of alcoholism
    • Bicycle became popular among the middle class
    • People began to watch more spectator sports and bet on them

• Industrial workers themselves reacted to industrial change
  • Factory work was dangerous, with no safety regulations, high rate of disease, and poor air quality
    • People lost fingers and arms to the machines
    • The factory workers were paid little to nothing and they couldn’t quit because there was a line of unemployed workers to take their place
    • After working all day, many of the factory workers went home to slums and packed themselves into tenements, which spread disease

• People began to resist by forming labor unions
  • A group of workers who organize themselves into a collective of workers using their combined voice for reform
  • Did not go unopposed, but were powerful
  • Gained 5 day work week, limit on hours worked, and minimum wage laws

• Labor unions began to push further for societal reform
  • Especially franchise: right to vote
  • In Britain, only men who held land could vote
    • 1918, franchise extended to all men, and in 1928, franchise extended to women as well

• Child Labor
  • Factory owners employed many children for their small size and their even lower salaries
  • When children worked 12-14 hours in factories, they developed physical deformities and in some cases, deadly sicknesses
  • Labor unions began to stand up for children
  • 1843, Law in U.S. made it illegal for children under 10 to work in coal mines
  • Around this time, laws for mandatory education were also passed

• Resistance to Industrialization from thinkers
  • Industrialization was a result of free market economics from Adam Smith
  • World had changed since then, multinational corporations were beyond the scope of Smith’s original idea
  • People began to criticize this idea and create their own solutions
  • John Stuart Mill criticized capitalism because it was a selfish system
    • Everyone is out for their own benefit and that the factory owner’s self interest was causing a large amount of harm
    • Created idea of utilitarianism, an idea that every individual action should be carried out for the happiness of the whole rather than the individual
  • Karl Marx divided society into the Bourgeoisie, the factory owners and the Proletariat, the working class
    • Argued that the Bourgeoisie were prospering at the expense of the Proletariat
    • Saw capitalism as a system of trampling the working class
    • Wrote the Communist Manifesto arguing that the workers should own means of production and share wealth
      • Stage of this plan was called scientific socialism which led to the end goal of communism

• Ottomans
  • Sultan Mahmud II took power in 1808 and overhauled Ottoman state in respect to industrialization
  • Saw major reforms in the Ottoman society like the abolition of the feudal system, the building of an extensive network of roads, and the establishment of a postal service
  • Tanzimat, a program of reforms carried out by Mahmud’s sons
    • Updated Ottoman legal system to have equality for all before the law
    • Worked hard to root out long standing corruption in government
    • Created secular schools for children which was different from the previous ulama (islamic scholar) led schools
  • After Ottoman society had largely been remade with Tanzimat, Sultan Abdul Hamid rose to power
    • At the beginning, he favored the reforms, but began to fear the radical reformers called the Young Turks
    • Exiled the group for wanting to overthrow him
  • Armenians in Ottoman Empire wanted reform too, but Hamid responded by persecuting and massacring them (Armenian Genocide in un 6)

• China (Qing Dynasty)
  • They knew that they needed to modernize to keep power (economically especially)
  • Created a period of reform called the Self-Strengthening Movement
    • Similar to way Japan industrialized, in order to protect culture from Western encroachment
  • Reforms largely failed and the efforts were abandoned
  • 1894, Japanese won the Sino-Japanese war against China
    • China’s impulse for reform was rekindled after that, and they created the Hundred Days of Reform
      • Removed Civil Service Exam
      • Created industrial and commercial systems patterned on Western Institutions in order to compete
    • Reform was frowned up by conservatives, such as Empress Dowager Cixi
      • She didn’t like the removal of the civil service exam and the adoption of western technology
      • Used her power to resist the reforms, but after realizing the corruption in the Civil Service Exam, she relented
      • Weakened by rebellion, China received help from western powers to modernize in exchange for exclusive trading rights in certain parts of china

• Cities changed with influx of migrants from rural areas into urban areas
  • Population exploded, but the cities weren’t ready and began to build infrastructure all over
  • Tenements arose: Factory owners realized workers needed a place to live so built tenements which were hastily constructed, poorly ventilated, and overcrowded homes
    • Factory workers weren’t paid a lot so they often shared tenements and were packed into them
  • Spread of disease from unsanitary conditions
    • Cholera was very common, coming from contaminated water
      • Resulted in severe vomiting, diarrhea, death
    • Tenements didn’t have plumbing so human waste was dumped onto streets or near water sources
      • During the time people didn’t understand that disease was spread through germs in waste
    • Eventually people realized they need to create sewage and waste removal processes to reduce disease

• Overall rise in standard of living from industrial age, especially in the growing middle class
  • Industrialization provided the class with more wealth to purchase consumer goods and gave better access to consumer goods and education
  • New kind of worker emerged, white collar workers, named for their suits working in office or management jobs
  • Top of social hierarchy were the industrialists, factory owners

• Industrial revolution and family structure
  • Most people lived on farms and lived from there
  • Used to have whole family work on farms, now whole family would go work in factories and come home at nights
  • Family became fractured as lots of time was spent away from home working with others, which became a large societal shift

• Women and factories
  • Many working class women would also work in factories
  • Some middle class women would also stay home to raise children
    • Saw rise of cult of domesticity, bestowed dignity upon women by saying their work at home was valuable for raising children
    • Taught that women’s main goal was to make the home a place to rest for working members of family
  • Many womens wanted more and began to raise their voices during this period to fight for change
    • Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 in the U.S. (see above)
      • Created changes to U.S. declaration of independence to include women too
    • Movements for women’s suffrage and women’s rights began in this period

• Environmental effects of IR
  • Fossil fuels were main sources of energy of industrialization
  • Smog arose from the smoke and fog that arose from industrialization
    • Caused respiratory issues for inhabitants of cities
  • Water supply was polluted by human waste
    • Spreaded bacterial diseases

• Standard of Living
  • Industrialization increased overall standard of living
  • New job openings attracted many people away from rural areas and grew cities
  • The rise of industrial capitalism also led to an increase in wages for some workers
    • Labor unions and higher demand for workers increased salaries,
    • Labor unions also improved working conditions
  • Industrial capitalism also led to other improvements in living standards
    • Higher production of goods = higher variety available for purchase
    • Improvements in transportation as growth of factories and demand for goods increased need of transportation
      • Railroads, steamships, long distance
  • Living standards were increased through productivity
    • New technologies such as steam engine allowed for mass production
      • Decrease in cost of goods making them more affordable for a wider range of people
  • Not everyone benefited from the rise of industrial capitalism.
    • Many people in rural areas were left behind
    • Working conditions were poor in low-paying jobs for high hours and poor working conditions
    • Gap between rich and poor grew

• Communication
  • Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph greatly facilitated exploration, development
  • Railroads allowed for rapid and large-scale movement of people and goods
    • made it possible to settle and develop previously isolated regions.
  • Steamships allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across water
  • The telegraph allowed for the rapid transmission of information,

• Revolutions and Rebellions
  • Step 1: Ideological foundation | Enlightenment
    • Enlightenment philosophies redefined understandings of the natural world by emphasizing power of reason and observation for understanding
    • Philosophers such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes emphasized the importance of systematic observation and experimentation as a means of understanding the natural world.
      • Bacon Encouraged people to use scientific methods, rejecting tradition and superstition
    • John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms and rejected the idea of the divine right of kings and absolute monarchies
      • Advocated for idea of social contract
      • Encouraged societies to have basic rights (life, liberty, property)
  • Nationalism
    • Nationalism motivated people to rebel
      • Created a sense of shared identity and desire for self-rule.
      • People wanted to rule their own country
  • Step 2: Diffusion of ideas | Enlightenment
    • Enlightenment diffused through books and printed materials distributed throughout Europe and the Americas
      • Newspapers and journals spread their ideas further as well as growth of education, literacy, mass media
    • As more people became educated, they were able to read and understand the ideas of the enlightenment thinkers
      • Mass media spread ideas to wider audience
    • 1. Reason and rationality
      • Question traditional beliefs and practices and rely on reason and evidence to make decisions and form opinions.
    • 2. Individualism:
      • Valued individual rights, freedom, autonomy
    • 3. Scientific inquiry
      • Science and evidence-based thinking, empirical evidence
    • 4. Human rights
      • Human rights and equality in law
    • 5. Critical thinking and skepticism:
      • Enlightenment ideas encouraged critical thinking and skepticism,
        • led to a tradition in everyday life of questioning authority and tradition, and seeking out evidence to support one's beliefs.
    • 6. Religious toleration
      • Enlightenment ideas emphasized the importance of religious toleration
      • Separation of church and state led to a tradition of religious freedom and the protection of minority religions.
  • Nationalism
    • Political factors
      • Nation-states became dominant in political organization
        • Centralization in Europe and the Americas and decline of empires and feudalism
        • Distinct national identities formed
      • Colonialism and Imperialism
        • Resistance against the colonial powers fueled nationalism in colonies
        • Desire for self-rule and independence.
    • Economic factors
      • Capitalism and industrialization → new social class
        • Ex. industrial working class
      • Economic nationalism
        • Economic self-sufficiency and protectionism
    • Social factors
      • Education, literacy and mass media created shared culture and identity
      • New art and literature (ex. romanticism)
  • Step 3: revolutions and rebellions
    • Enlightenment & nationalism → rebellions, new nation-states
      • American Revolution (1775-1783) formed USA from Britain
      • French Revolution (1789-1799)
        • Monarchy → republic
        • Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and his empire
      • Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)
        • Fought by enslaved Africans and Afro-Caribbeans
      • Latin American Wars of Independence (1810-1825)
        • Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Peru, from Spanish and Portuguese
      • Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Indian Mutiny)
        • Attempt by Indian soldiers to overthrow British rule in India
        • Unsuccessful but marked a turning point, led to the eventual dissolution of the British East India Company

• Imperialism arose from IR
  • Imperialistic fervor grew due to culture, nationalism, and economics
  • Most imperialistic advances were made by European powers
    • They believed in the superiority of the white race and their culture

• Cultural reasons for Imperialism
  • Saw themselves as benevolent protectors to spread their “superior” culture to the rest of the world
    • Rudyard Kipling called it the white man’s burden
  • Another reason was Darwinism
    • Darwin argued for the survival of the fittest and some people applied these principles to society creating Social Darwinism
      • They argued that if nature is fighting for survival, strong nations should also take over weak nations
  • Religion
    • European christians spread throughout the world with a missionary zeal to convert the world
      • Empires needed a presence in as many places as possible for that to succeed
      • Missionaries established schools in imperial territories to teach religion, math, and science
      • Also created hospitals and helped stop the slave trade

• Nationalist reasons for Imperialism
  • Nationalism: when a group of people who have a strong common identity become loyal to a single state
  • After losing American Colonies, Britain looked around world to see where else they could establish an empire
    • Imperialized all across the globe “The sun never set on the British Empire” and created very wealthy and important colonies
    • Most important was India
  • France also established colonies, throughout North Africa, especially Algeria; Canada; Southeast Asia, including Indochina (SEA)
  • Nationalism also drove Japan towards empire building as well
    • Late 1800s, Japan was increasingly encroaching on Korea’s economy and politics
    • Angered Qing leadership in China that started a war in 1894: Sino-Japanese War
    • Japan had advanced weapons from modernizing in the Meiji Restoration and beat China, establishing Korea as a colony of their own

• Economic motives for Imperialism
  • Industrial powers became hungry for more raw materials and new markets to sell manufactured goods to
  • British, Dutch, and French rulers chartered agreements with local rulers in India, the East Indies, and East Africa
  • Gave Europeans the right to establish these trading posts and the right to defend the trading posts
    • That allowed europeans to create armies for their trading posts and defend themselves which was very important
    • Britain became very powerful in 19th century in first IR and only became challenged after second IR

• Imperialism: when a country extends its power and influence into other lands, sometimes by diplomacy or sometimes by force

• European expansion into Africa
  • Europe had been expanding its influence into Africa since the 1800s
  • For much of the 19th century Europe’s influence in Africa was restricted to trading posts so they wanted more

• British (and rest of Europe) wanted a shorter sea-based route to Asian trading posts
  • Wanted to build a canal across Egypt to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea
    • Suez Canal built in 1869
    • In 1882, Britain took the land from the Ottomans
  • Britain wanted more colonies in Africa as well
    • Originally had agreements with local rulers that benefitted both sides
    • After imperialistic fervor grew, Britain ignored the agreements and took more land by force
    • Established colonial holdings in Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos, and the Gold Coast

• French took similar amounts of land in West Africa
  • Ousted the ottomans from Algeria in 1830 and created a settler colony
    • When people from mother country come to live in the colony
    • Huge influx of french, spanish, and italian immigrants to Algeria

• Scramble for Africa
  • As more and more lands were claimed by European powers in Africa, competition for land began to heat up
  • Otto von Bismarck of Germany realized that a war was going to begin so instead he called Berlin Conference of 1884 where imperial leaders distributed Africa among themselves
    • Became a problem because they drew boundaries for what worked for them cutting along united Africans and combined long standing rival groups
  • Belgian king Leopold II pushed into the Congo and claimed it as his own personal holding
    • Not a colony of the state but the owner
    • Used brutal policies to Congolese such as forced labor to extract ivory and rubber from the land
      • Over 8 million people died due to his policies
    • By 1908, Belgian state took over colony and improved conditions

• Imperialism into Asia
  • British presence in India
    • Under the auspices of the British East India Company, Britain claimed more and more territory from the weakened Mughal empire, and eventually, they conquered all of India
    • Originally used their own troops but then recruited indian soldiers called sepoys to join the effort
  • European powers in China used economic imperialism
    • During the time China was insatiable due to natural disasters and internal rebellion
    • Western powers moved in and used military to demand trading rights with China, and China was forced to agree
    • Western powers carved up china into spheres of influence
      • Qing dynasty remained in power but western powers had exclusive trading rights in their own sphere
  • Japan’s imperialism
    • Had a modernized military b/c of Meiji Restoration
    • Wanted colonial holdings rich in raw materials
      • Expanded into Korea, SEA, parts of China, and parts of Indonesia
  • Dutch also imperialized into southeast asia
    • Dutch East India Company (VOC) became dominant in those areas
      • Due to internal corruption they eventually failed
      • Government stepped in after failure and took colonial holdings
  • British colonized Australia and New Zealand
    • Australia was originally a penal colony
      • Britain sent Convicts to Australia
    • By 1820s they had taken all of Australia and they realized that they could use the land for production of wool
    • Also found copper and gold in Australia so more people colonized
    • New Zealand, occupied by the Maori people was established as a settler colony
      • Relocated Maori to a separate location but eventually fought Maori in the New Zealand Wars where Britain won starting long lasting resentment from the Maori
  • United States imperialism
    • Expanded in their own continent, there was an urge to push westward in the American identity
      • Relocated millions of natives
      • In 1830, American Congress passed the Indian Removal Act which led to the systematic removal of American Indians from the east onto reservations in the midwest
      • Migration known as trail of tears for abuse and death endured
    • Idea of Manifest Destiny
      • Americans thought that God gave them all of America and it was their duty to take it
    • Late part of 19th century, after conquering to California, America gathered resources for an overseas empire
      • Spanish American war in 1898
      • America declared war on Spain and won territory including Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba
  • Russia also expanded
    • Catherine II expanded Russian empire
      • Won half of Poland from the Ottomans
    • Alexander I annexed Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Finland, and part of Armenia
    • Later, Russia acquired a large portion of Manchuria from China

• When imperial nations pushed into new nations, often indigenous people found a surge of nationalism
  • Led to resistance against the encroachment of imperial powers

• Americas:
  • At first U.S. was a series of British colonies
  • After British won French and Indian War (1754–1763) they established Proclamation of 1763 which took land from French and reserved all lands in the Ohio River Valley for the natives
    • However, Americans pushed westward anyways
    • Part of larger war called 7 years war
  • After winning independence, still continued pushing to west coast
  • Cherokee Natives:
  • Had dealt with British colonists and Americans for a long time
    • Assimilated into Americas to deal with encroachment, creating a constitutional government and adopting American customs
      • Worked until gold was discovered on their land
  • Indian Removal Act of 1830 sent all natives along the trail of tears

• Native Resistance movements in the later 18th century
  • Ghost dance: Natives in northwest believed in a prophecy that announced that their ancestral dead would return and drive the white man out of their lands
  • Engaged in a series of ritualistic dances and songs in order to hasten that event
  • Ghost dance spread across many of the natives peoples of America
  • Resulted in conflict at Wounded Knee in 1890 where the Sioux Natives were crushed by the Americans, ending the Indian Wars in America

• Peru:
  • Cacique, hereditary leader, named Tupac Amaru II led an armed rebellion against Spanish colonial leaders because they were sick of abuse
    • Imprisoned spanish leader for cruelty and Spanish retaliated inciting a rebellion among the natives in Peru and other SA nations
    • Amaru was eventually captured and executed, marking the last major Indian revolt against Spain

• Mexico:
  • Benito Juarez was of Zapotec (pre-columbian) blood and was in power
    • Liberal who despised foreign influence, especially the French
    • Conservative members of government resented his liberalism and saw the French encroachment as a way to oust Juarez
    • Conspired with european powers to overthrow Juarez’ government
  • French occupation was short lived and after 3 years of armed resistance, the french were ousted from mexico

• Australia:
  • 1788, British established penal colony in Australia
    • Settlers began to come to Australia and British government demanded that the settlers be kind to the aboriginal people
      • Eventually settlers realized the native people couldn’t complain to the crown about intrusion and pushed onto native lands anyways
    • Natives rose up in their own defense but British military crushed them

• Africa:
  • European powers often set up colonial governments run by Europeans
    • Xhosa people in South Africa refused to be ruled by the Europeans
    • Fought with British for over 40 years in the 19th century
  • Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement led to over 400,000 cows dying
    • Near the end of the time, many Xhosa cattle were killed by the Xhosa because they believed the cattle’s spirits would drive the Europeans out
    • Only resulted in famine and death
  • West Africa: Sokoto Caliphate (1806 - 1906)
    • Trade in west Africa led to a collision of values and circulation of ideas across the Sahara
    • The Fulani were pastoralists and nomadic, some were sedentary and converted to Islam
      • They wanted to recreate a pure Islam
    • Usman Dan Fodio’s Movement was inspired by Muhammad, calling for a return to earlier Islamic practices
      • Urged Jihad against unbelievers or false believers
    • Led a successful revolted against the Hausa Landlords and established a confederation of Islamic Emirates and Sokoto Caliphate
    • Dismantled in Berlin Conference and given to Britain
  • West Africa: france
    • French wanted a part of west africa but faced resistance
    • Chief named Samory Toure created Wassoulou Empire (1878–1898) in West Africa
      • Resisted french violently in a series of conflicts called Samory Toure’s war
      • French won and created colony
  • East Africa: Sudan
    • Muhammad Ahmad, an Islamic cleric in Sudan saw that his country was next for imperialism so gathered an army to fight against British in 1880
      • He defeated the British which became known as the Mahdist Revolt
    • After he died, movement disintegrated
    • British returned to Sudan in 1896 and defeated Mahdists and took over

• Balkans: had been ruled by Ottomans for a while
  • Ottomans were losing grip on balkans
  • Resentment regarding ottoman occupation bubbled close to the surface in places like greece, serbia, bulgaria
    • Resulted in fierce nationalism as those countries rose against the ottomans and gained their independence

• As nations grew their industrial capacity, they found they needed more raw materials and food to feed workers

• Agriculture
  • Before Europeans, most Africans engaged in subsistence farming
    • They only farmed enough for them to live on
    • Europeans replaced subsistence with cash crop farming
    • Cash crops are crops that are grown not to live from but for sale in a distant market
  • African plantations were dedicated to cash crops such as coffee, rubber, or sugar
    • They were exported to foreign markets
  • Increase in demand for beef (meat)
    • Rising consumer class, people wanted more meat
    • Colonies in Argentina and Uruguay raising large amounts of cows who were then refrigerated and shipped to europe using the new technology
  • Guano: bat and seabird poop
    • As agriculture increased, so did demand for fertilizer
    • Guano in Peru and Argentina had been piling up for centuries so it became a huge part of Peru and Chile’s export economy

• Raw materials
  • Factories needed raw materials to continue making manufactured goods
  • Turned to colonies to provide the raw materials
  • Cotton
    • During IR, 80% of cotton for British textiles was imported from America
    • During the Civil War, cotton production dropped dramatically
    • Britain turned to Egypt, and by the 1800s, 90+% of Egypt’s exports were cotton
      • Also turned to India for cotton
  • Rubber
    • Rubber was important for IR, it was used for tires, soles of shoes, hoses, gaskets for machines, etc.
    • Rubber comes from rubber tree grown in Amazon rainforest
      • Colonial powers forced natives to work at rubber extraction destroying land to plant rubber trees
  • Palm oil
    • Came from west africa, important for food
    • Became a great lubricant for factory machines
    • Palm oil became a cash crop using enslaved laborers to produce it
  • Diamonds
    • Starting in 1871, there was a diamond rush in South Africa
    • Cecil Rhodes formed the DeBeers Mining Company, and because of his ambition in this area, South Africa was exporting 90% of the world’s diamonds by 1890
    • Rhodes became very powerful and was elected to the South African Parliament
    • 1890 Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony
      • His racial policies led to the apartheid

• Consequence 1: an increasingly interconnected global economy
  • Raw materials sold to imperial nations and imperial nations sold manufactured goods back to the colonies
    • Also began to import food from colonies to keep up with growing population, assisted by the invention of the refrigerator

• Consequence 2: narrowing and weakening of the colonial economies
  • Large-scale shift to cash crop farming meant that the colonial people often grew cash crops at the expense of other agricultural necessities
  • Colonies were in trouble if the sole cash crop they exported was in trouble
  • Crops like cotton severely deplete the nutrients in the soil
    • There was only so long the crop could be planted in the same soil so if the crop failed, so did the economy

• Sometimes imperialism was economic rather than political
  • Economic imperialism: a situation in which one country has significant economic power over another country

• British East India Company
  • Established themselves in India in the early 1600s in order to become involved in the lucrative Indian spice trade
  • Britain wanted more so began to exert more political dominance over the Indian economy
    • Led India into a situation where the majority of their export economy was made up of cotton exported to Britain

• China
  • British demanded huge quantities of porcelain, silk, tea but they did not export goods to china
    • They were spending lots of money in China while China did not spend money on British goods
    • Led to trade deficit in Britain and they lost a lot of silver to the Qing
  • British East India Company forced indian farmers to start manufacturing opium
    • British smuggled large amounts of opium into China and sold them to the people
      • The more chinese that got addicted to opium, the more the british sold
    • 1729 Chinese emperor made buying and selling of opium illegal
      • Too many people had become addicted to it by then so it was too late
    • After a century of this, chinese grew tired of abuse and rose up against British in the Opium Wars
      • First conflicts were in 1839 and the main goal was for the chinese to oust the british
      • Britain won because of their industrial weapons
  • After opium wars, Britain did not take over politically but they did take over economically
    • Forced China to open additional ports of trade to Britain and by requiring a free-trade agreement
  • Opium Wars showed the world that industrialized nations destroyed non-industrialized nations in war
    • Other nations later in the 1800s came to China wanting to get their own part of free trade
    • Countries agreed to split up china into spheres of influence
    • Japan, France, U.S., Britain, Russia, Germany each got spheres where they had exclusive trading rights

• Latin America
  • Second half of 19th century, big imperial interest in Latin America
    • Countries wanted raw materials, low wage workers, and markets for their goods
    • U.S. signed Monroe Doctrine in 1823
      • Said that most of the western hemisphere belonged to the U.S. and European intervention was no longer welcome
      • U.S. had become powerful from second IR compared to Latin America
      • Invested heavily in industrialization of places like Mexico and Cuba
      • Object of these investments were railroads and the development of industries like meat packing, guano extraction, mining
  • Britain did similar things in Argentina
    • Invested huge sums of money into Argentina, especially in breeding livestock, farming, and railroads
    • Britain helped finance the building of the Port of Buenos Aires
    • In order to facilitate the massive import and export of raw materials and manufactured goods
  • Spains in Chile
    • Chile was a colonial holding of Spain, initially economy was entirely dependent on agricultural exports to Spain
      • Once copper was discovered in Chilean hillside, it became a big part of Chile’s export economy

• Migration Through Labor Systems
  • Slavery abolished in early 19th century
    • Labor still necessary for plantations/farms, etc
  • Laborers on the move
    • Indian Laborers migrated to British Colonies in Caribbean, South Africa, Fiji
    • Chinese move to California and Malaya to build railroads and farms
    • Japanese moved to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba for sugar plantations

• Slavery
  • Ended in early 19th century (1800s)
    • 1856: Abolished in U.S.
    • 1886 Cuba
    • 1888 Brazil
  • Slave trade stopped but slavery very continued
  • Labor was needed, so countries still coerced labor

• Indentured Servitude
  • People worked for set number of years in exchange for passage and better opportunity
    • Africa → West Indies, India → Fiji, etc
  • Meant to be temporary, but sometimes became permanent

• Asia Contract Labor
  • 1847-1874: 250k-500k Chinese were sent to British, Spanish, Dutch Colonies in Asia, Africa, and Caribbean
  • Worked in Sugar plantations or unskilled jobs
  • British stopped in 1855, US ended in 1862, Portugal ended in 1874

• British Penal Colonies
  • 1700: set up in Australia
    • Took convicts from England, Scotland, Ireland, and colonies
  • Suffered harsh treatment and performed labor
    • Labor for free settlers
  • Became desirable location after gold was discovered there in 1851
    • Attracted 50k Chinese

• French Penal Colonies
  • Africa, New Caledonia, French Guiana
    • New Caledonia: most harsh conditions, “devil’s island”, limited food/resources
      • Island west of South America
    • French Guiana: bigger population, more resources

• Diaspora: Large migrations from a country or a region over a large period of time
  • India
    • 1833: British sent Indians to Mauritius
      • Western Africa
      • Indentured servitude
    • 5 year contracts in exchange for land or permanent settlement
    • Kangani: systems in Ceylon and Malaya where family members recruited other extended family to work in another country
    • Maistry: system in Burma (SEAsia), recruited labors within a structured labor. Labor was often exploitative with poor conditions
  • China
    • Mostly male immigration from China to California for Gold Rush
      • 1849: Gold was discovered in California
    • Chinese were often not first time mine
      • When they found mines, they were oftentimes beat up by Americans and taken over
      • Or after a mine was dug and Americans took most gold, Chinese went to pan/hose the rest of the gold
    • Held jobs or owned companies that supported mining
      • Laundry washing
      • Shoe cleaning
      • Industrial jobs
  • Irish
    • Britain abolished Irish government in 1801, joined the Crown
      • Many left the country because restriction of freedom
    • 1845-1849: Great Famine, contributed to emigration
      • Potatoes were all that was left; crops died. If there is any produce, it was sent to England
      • Caused 3 million to exit
      • Most went to the U.S., some: England, Scotland, Canada, Australia
  • Migration to Settler Colonies
    • Colonial Service: Gov’t officials or British army soldiers
    • British citizens left to colonize and stay in Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand (more permanent)
    • India, Malaya, and Kenya became temporary locations (too hot? not favored)
  • Technical Experts
    • Engineers and Geologists moved around the globe
    • Western Science and Technology moved around the World
    • Geologist
      • Andrew Geddes Baine
        • Created first map of South Africa
        • Allowed for railroads
        • Faster transportation
    • Railroads
      • Invented in Britain by George Stevenson
      • British brought railroads and steam power technology wherever they went
  • Argentina
    • “Jewel in the Crown” of the British Empire
    • Bankers, Businessmen, Engineers migrated there
      • Nice place to live, good terrain
    • imported goods were mainly for middle class not unskilled labor (luxury items, etc)
    • Advanced the population, didn’t hurt
  • Japan
    • Closed to outside world until 1868
    • Late 1893: Japanese wanted to create overseas empire
      • Wanted to export goods and excess population
      • Young Japanese men were sent overseas to study on the U.S. or West Coast
      • Gentleman’s agreement between U.S. and Japan
        • Japan said “We won't sent more people, so please accept them into communities/schools and be nicer”

• Changes in Home Societies
  • Migrant laborers often times male
    • Difficult work
  • Shifted gender roles and demographics
    • Women filled in “male” jobs
  • More money made, money was sent back home
    • Allowed women at home to work less and focus on building a home
    • Children went to school
  • Allowed for families at home to focus on school

• Effects of Migration on Receiving Societies
  • Ethnic Enclaves: clusters or neighborhoods of people from same foreign country formed across globe
    • Ex. Chinatown, Little Italy
  • Chinese Enclaves
    • Southeast Asia
      • Chinese culture was spread across world
      • French encouraged commerce
        • Colonized the area, called it “Indochina”
          • Burma/Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia
      • Many Chinese here became business owners & traders
    • The U.S.
      • Chinese first immigrated during Gold Rush and Transcontinental Railroad
    • South America
      • 225k laborers sent to Cuba and Peru on 8 year contracts
        • Replaced slave labor on sugar plantations
      • Built Andean Railroad and Guano Mines
      • Chifa: Chinese and Peruvian fusion cuisine

• Indians in Southeast Asia (SEA) / Africa
  • British East Africa and Natal
    • 1883: Slavery abolished by Crown
      • Replaced by Indentured Servants
      • Built railways and worked on sugar plantations
        • Could do this with maps; ship around quicker
    • 1893: Gandhi arrived in South Africa to practice law
      • Suffered from racial discrimination and became activist
    • 1914: Gandhi return to India to continue movement
  • Southeast Asia
    • 1834-1937; 100+ years
      • India was major source of labor
    • Because of proximity to India, family ties were held
      • Kangani system: less restrictive

• Irish in North America
  • Scots-Irish: Came to flee the Crown by indentured servitude
    • Crown absorbed the Irish government
    • Potato Famine
  • Irish men worked on farms and canal system in the north east
    • 1800-1900 ish
    • Also fought for union army in civil war
    • Police, firemen
  • Many held unfavorable jobs
    • Many became labor activists
    • Irish were able to assimilate and were a little bit more respected in comparison to ex. Chinese
  • Single Irish Women came looking for husbands and became domestic servants

• Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration
  • 1879: Congress limits Chinese immigrants’ rights
    • Chinese excluded from public works / state jobs
    • As a result, there are a lot of Chinese businesses
  • Those not white were prevented from becoming citizens
  • Encouraged segregation of population
  • Chinese Exclusion act of 1882
    • Initially 10 years: No incoming Chinese immigrants. NONE except for those with family connections., etc
    • Not repealed until 1943

• Changes in the Standard of Living
  • Automation caused production to increase
    • Industrialization led to an increase in efficiency
      • Textiles, furnitures, clothes, etc
    • As efficiency increased, prices dropped
    • Standard of living across the world increased
  • As more things could be bought and sold, wages increased
    • Thus consumption increased
  • Income gap increased exponentially
    • Standard of living didn’t rise for everyone
      • Former slaves, laborers

• Overseas Expansion
  • Industrial Revolution: Overproduction became a problem
    • International trade increased
      • Countries wanted to export goods
      • Caused economic and political rivalries
  • Countries used government and militaries to find markets
    • Coal, Iron, Tin, Rubber, Copper
      • From Africa, South America, SEA, LatAm colonies
  • Western Europe, Japan, U.S.
    • Saw benefits in controlling foreign market
      • Monroe Doctrine: heavy involvement of U.S. in South America
        • Panama Canal
      • British coal mines in Africa
    • Little economic development in exporting countries
    • Countries in Africa and SEA that avoided colonization became dominated by Western Powers (France and Britain)
      • Advances in military technology, ship building, and medicine

Imperialism vs. Colonialism

• Revolution and Rebellion
  • Independence and Revolutions
    • Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela gained independence
    • Many were previously Spanish or Portuguese colonies
  • Sepoy Rebellion
    • Indian soldiers rebelled against East India Trading Company
    • Disbanded the EITC

• Migration and Discrimination
  • Migration from rural to industrial areas
  • European immigrants moved to the U.S. and Canady to work in industry

1910-1920: Mexican Revolution

• Mexico under the rule of dictator Porfirio Díaz. It was relatively stable during this time but the wealth disparity was very high
  • In 1910, Día had Francisco Madero, the opposing candidate, jailed. This sparked greater opposition against Díaz’s policies starting the MExican Revolution.
  • Madero escaped and set up revolutionary offices in Texas.

• In 1911, revolutionary troops led by Francisco Villa defeated Mexican troops and they exiled Díaz. Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the revolution began to dole out land to peasants
  • Still suffered from political instability until 1920 but began to stabilize around 1930.
  • Between 1910 the conflicts resulted in around 2 million deaths in a population of 15 million people.
  • New constitution in 1917 redistributing land, giving suffrage, and education.
  • Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) formed in 1929 and dominated Mexican politics (all presidents until 2000 were members of the PRI)
    • It’s criticized to be corrupt

1911: Chinese revolution

• China struggled with ethnic tensions between the Han and the Manchus even after 200 years.
  • China had a large population and famine was imminent.
  • China had been very wealthy but as industrialization and imperialism occurred, they grew less powerful, especially compared to europe.
  • After the opium war, China gave up Hong Kong and opened its ports to the Europeans.
    • Sun Yat-Sen overthrew the Qing Dynasty in 1911.
      • Combined christian and confucian ideals
  • Yuan Shikai: Yuan Shikai, a chinese military/govt official aided in the ending of the Qing rule alongside Sun Yat-Sen. As a powerful military leader, he eventually became emperor of china.
  • Chiang Kai-shek: A chinese nationalist and politician who led the republic of China from 1928 until 1975.

• Sun Yat-sen wanted China to have power from the people and redistribute taxes fairly as well as advocating for patriotism.
  • He didn’t have enough military strength to rule all of China and he gave up his position to a military leader after two months in office.

• The Chinese nationalist party/Kuomintang, the party that Sun led, later regained power and ruled China for 20 years before losing a war to Chinese communists.

1914-1918: World War 1

• Allied powers U.K, russia, france, (japan later)
  • Triple entente between UK Russia france and later all other countries
  • U.s. provided support but did not officially join
  • Italy was neutral first then joined allies in 1915

• Central powers
  • Germany, austria-hungary, bulgaria, ottoman empire (later)

• Causes: MAIN
  • Militarism
    • Strengthening armies, russia built up their armies and mobilized on austria-hungary border
    • Britain and france all built up militaries in response as defense
  • Alliances
    • Alliances between austria-hungary and germany caused the one month delay between the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand and the invasion of serbia because austria hungary wanted to determine safety from russian invasion
    • Alliances between allied powers: triple entente, mutual alliances between UK russia france to protect each other
  • Imperialism
    • Scramble for africa resulted in africa being colonized and imperialized by lots of european states
    • Imperialism in asia/SEA, india britain, indonesian colonies, french vietnam
    • Imperialism from japan, japan-russian war
      • Throughout asia and asian colonies in SEA
    • Tensions for colonial control (more colonies = more power)
  • Nationalism
    • Serbian nationalism led to assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand
      • Bosnian nationalist in serbia
    • Nationalism separated countries and pressured leaders to fight?

1915: Armenian genocide starts

• Forced deportation or massacre of hundreds of thousands to 1.5 million christian armenians in the ottoman empire
  • Also assyrians and greeks (non “turks”)
  • Armenians forced out of homes and forced to march hundreds of miles to syria
    • Most of them died on the trip
    • After WWI began ottomans moved armenians to labor camps
      • They were suspected to “work with the russians” for their christian religion
  • Tehcir law in May 27 mandated that armenians be moved to other places for security

• Ottomans in WWI joined central powers and started process of Turkification
  • Intense Turkish nationalism and assimilation

• This sparked a genocide against the Armenian (Christian) minority
  • First genocide in 20th century

• 25 major concentration camps for armenians
  • Ottoman troops allowed others to rob, kill, and rape the armenians and sometimes participated themselves

• Treaty of Versailles
  • Leaders during genocide were tried for crimes against humanity

1917: US joins WWI

• Joined to fight Germany
  • 1. Lusitania ship in 1915
    • British civilian submarine with 150 american passengers shot down in atlantic waters by german
  • 2. Zimmerman Telegram (intercepted by british intelligence)
    • German gov’t told Mexican gov’t to join forces to take back land from Mexican-American War losses

1917: Russian Revolution

• How did the bolsheviks meet/meetings and ideas

• Lenin led ideals of marxism and socialism to have the proletariat lead

• Lenin led the Russian party of bolsheviks to take over St. Petersburg in 1917 winter

• More info about what happened

1919-1923: Greek Attacks on Ottoman Empire, Ataturk establishes Turkey and presidency

• Greeks saw their chance to attack in midst of Ottoman turmoil and territory loss
  • Attacked in 1919

• Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal; father of the Turks) led attacks against Greeks
  • Successful

• 1923: Ataturk overthrew the sultanate and became the first president of modern day Turkey

1919: World War 1 ends, postwar negotiations in the Paris Peace Conferences

• World war 1 ends
  • U.S. entered causing higher amounts of fighting
  • U.S. had superior military forces resulting in germany’s surrender in 1918

• Germany surrendered 1918 and agreed to sign treaty of versailles in paris

• Treaty of versailles blamed germany for all of the war resulting in heavy debt, military limitations, lose territories/colonies, and full blame for war

• Germany felt that was unfair because they were not the sole cause for the war

1920: League of Nations founded… and disbanded later on

• 14 Points Address by Wilson inspired creation of the league of nations; but U.S. didn’t join originally
  • Isolationism of U.S. congress members, voted against joining which embarrassed woodrow wilson→ they didn’t want to give more power to europe nations

• League of nations worked to keep peace (main goal)

• League of nations had goals but couldn’t stop hitler or other groups because they had no military forces

• Mandate System
  • Took over Ottoman territory esp. in Middle East

• Ottoman territory collapse
  • Failed to modernize
    • “Sick man of Europe”
  • Corruption, increasing taxes, inflation
    • Tanzimat reforms in 19th century tried to fix this but inefficient
  • Young Turks Movement
    • Established multi-party democracy

• How did the league of nations disband
  • Dissolution of league of nations after being replaced by united nations which was created in 1946

1927-1945: Chinese Civil War

• Between CCP and Sun Yat-sen’s Republic of China

• Sun Yat-sen took power after Chinese Revolution of 1911 which dissolved the Manchu/Qing Dynasty
  • Became more westernized
  • Three Principles of the People: nationalism, socialism, and democracy
  • Created democratic system and Kuomintang (KMT) party

• Yuan Shikai took power from Sun and tried to create monarchy but failed and died in 1916 resulting in large power struggle

• Power was split among china in a turbulent state

• Sun Yat-sen created new government in Guangzhou to create central power away from all warlords
  • No aid from western nations, looked to soviet union for help
  • Sun - Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation between Comintern (soviet organization), KMT, and CCP
    • Reorganized KMT and CCP to align with soviet union
    • Provided military training to ccp

• KMT and CCP alliances fell apart during northern expedition with nationalists controlling most of china (KMT for, CCP against)
  • Military movement by KMT against local warlords to reunify china
  • After the 1911 revolution, there was a big political vacuum. KMT kept most of the power, but a lot of it was also spread between local warlords who seized power during the vacuum
  • Sun Yat-sen did not have the military expertise to control all of china.
    • Chang kai shek, originally lieutenant of Sun during the invasion of the beiyang (other government led by local lords), succeeded sun yat sen in order to reunify china
      • Two issues for Chang
        • 1) Japanese imperialism invading Manchuria in 1931
        • 2) Communist influence growing in Northern China
      • Because imperialism for japan, hostilities halted in order to fight a common enemy
        • Even then hostilities were high and lots of fighting
        • Once japan was defeated, civil war “really” started from 1945-1949
    • CCP took control of mainland China and established PRC in 1949
      • Republic of China (KMT) fled to island of taiwan in 1949, still led by chiang kai-shek
      • 1950s standoff between china and PRC
      • Both claim to be legitimate government of china
        • No official treaty but ceasefire in 1979

• They had a long march to avoid fighting
  • While battling CCP was losing and they really needed to run so they took a very long walk and a lot of people died (Majority of people died)
    • Really bad for them
  • CCP later used this as propaganda and glorified this event to pretend like they were persevering

• Originally ccp was very small but became large from support from peasants

1928: Stalin initiates his first Five Year Plan within Soviet Russia

• Originally lenin instituted partly democratic economic policies allowing farmers to sell their goods

• Instated government owned collectives which took land from people and moved them under government control to have peasants work under
  • Many people didn’t like this and called it a return to serfdom
  • Established necessary quotas for the collectives
  • Peasants rebelled by burning and destroying their property as to not give to government
  • Plan was to heavily industrialize moving farms to factories and decrease consumption
  • Ukrainian genocide
    • Famines throughout ukraine and government sent no support even though they could

• Failed because lack of motivation/incentive and because industrial labor was dull with low reward
  • Inspired CCP to follow with their own five year plans

1929-1933: Great Depression

• Caused in part by germany’s economic troubles after the war
  • Germany was heavily in debt and had lots of colonies and territories which they depended on to make money. They couldn’t keep up making money so they overprinted money resulting in heavy inflation. This led to a global market crash

• Other causes of GD

• Made people realize that capitalism wasn’t perfect as governments had to step in and control the economy

• FDR New Deal established to help economy
  • Public service jobs, government jobs to help develop infrastructure and recover economy

• Ended from WW2
  • Need for weapons and mobilization helped recover economy

1939-1945: World War 2

• Germany was angry about their conditions after the war after being heavily in debt with a poor economy
  • People wanted change and also partly blamed their government
  • Hitler became chancellor (how did he get power?) and he took power after the leader (president? What was former government) died and established nazi party
  • Hitler made the jews and slavs in germany a scapegoat for the troubles which resulted in ethnic persecution from people in germany

• Hitler moved to invade other areas of europe and redeveloped military beyond what was allowed
  • Other countries watched warily but did little as to not exacerbate conflict
  • Moved to appease hitler by giving him areas such as sudetenland in czechoslovakia and other territories
  • Where else did hitler go / take territory from?
  • Molotov-ribbentrop pact between germany and russia to not attack each other as both had powerful militaries
    • Russia was wary as it was clear germany planned to backstab them but agreed
    • War officially started with invasion of poland from both sides, russia and germany
    • Poland fell and countries moved to mobilize into war because they could not let hitler take more land
  • Hitler continued to fight throughout europe, taking all of europe and france besides GB and Russia
  • Powers during WWII
    • Axis: germany, italy (fascist but weaker military), japan (later in war because wanted to imperialize too)
    • Allied: GB, france (taken over by germany), Russia, USA
  • Heavy fighting between two forces
    • Review all battles → notes from mr headley and oversimplified video
  • Bombing of britain → airships bombed britain from germany
    • Part of Operation Sea Lion (Germany invasion of UK)
    • luftwaffe: German airforce that carried this out
    • Germany believed that britain was weak because it was isolated
    • British air force (raf140) fought back and won
    • British weapons were destroyed but factories worked very hard, especially many women employed in factories
  • Major battles → D-day, dunkirk? Stalingrad?
  • AFter cold russian winter the nazi troops were forced back by russian military, all the way to germany
    • From the other side allied forces were doing the same, pushing back hitler who in a last ditch effort tried to capture a unit in the battle of the bulge but failed and was pushed back to berlin
    • Berlin was taken, dresden firebombing
      • Japan also firebombing
  • Hitler’s suicide
  • Yalta conference / what was the other conference?
    • Meetings between allied forces (GB, France, Russia, USA) to discuss matters after war
      • Germany was split into areas, west germany for GB, france, USA and east for russia
        • Also berlin in east russia was split between USA/west side and Russia side

1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor/ war in the pacific

• Germany's occupation of europe allowed Japan to take the colonies of the asian countries
  • Created a pact with germany in 1940 and occupied french indochina (vietnam) in 1941 and took oil and rubber from dutch east indies
  • Their only obstacle in the pacific was the United States
    • To strike them before they could pose a threat, japanese attacked pearl harbor on dec 7, 1941
  • US responded by launching doolittle raids, air raids against japan
  • Japanese battle of midway, midway islands were key islands the U.S. held
    • U.S. won and destroyed key japanese carriers
  • Pacific fighting
    • Island hopping → taking key islands and recuperating before attacking next island
    • Iwo jima very bloody, last one okinawa
  • Japan wanted to take philippines and dutch east indies which they took in 1942
    • Used military to take a large area of British-ruled Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, and Burma
    • Threatened India too
    • Japan said they were anticolonial in these movements to justify their imperialism to drive out europeans and create “Asia for Asians”
    • However, they continued to oppress the colonies and continued ideas of Japanese racial superiority

1941-1945: The Holocaust

• During war atrocities from nazi party called holocaust (Destruction through fire)
  • Jewish and other ethnic minorities as well as homosexuals and disabled were sent to forced labor camps known as concentration camps and were killed, through labor or through weaponry
  • Were first transported to cities known as ghettos and then transported to camps
  • Statistics of jewish people that died? 50%?
  • Started with kristallnacht
    • Night of broken glass where nazi forces destroyed jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues

• Nuremberg trials convicted members who participated in the holocaust of crimes and they were punished

1945-1950: Chinese Communist Revolution

• Led by Mao zedong? What happened? Explain clearly

• Ccp gained influence from many working class people and reached #s in the millions

1945: Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings

• Once got close to japan they realized that they would not be able to attack japan without significant casualties

• Manhattan project created nuclear bombs → with oppenheimer
  • Two bombs, little boy out of uranium and fat man out of plutonium
  • Little boy dropped on hiroshima, fat man on nagasaki
    • Devastating results.. How many deaths?
    • Japan surrendered

1945: United Nations created

• Done in un9

• Inspiration from league of nations and enlightenment thought

1975

• Pol Pot took power in 1975 with Khmer Rouge in Cambodia
  • Wanted to create communist utopia
  • Removed all traces of western influence for communism
  • Everything foreign was banned including medicine, radios, bicycles, money, education, etc.
  • Pol Pot evacuated cambodian cities killing 20,000 people on the way
  • Slave labor in Pol Pot’s killing fields killed millions
  • Anyone suspected of disloyalty was killed

• Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1979 taking Cambodia and establishing a puppet government

1994: Rwandan genocide

• Beginning April 6, 1994 800,000 Tutsis were killed by Hutu militia

• Rwanda has 2 ethnic main groups, Hutu and Tutsi
  • In the past Tutsis were minority rulers despite Hutu being 90% of the population
  • Tutsi dominated Hutu especially under Belgian rule

• Independence in 1962
  • Hutu majority took power oppressing the Tutsi minority
    • 200,000 Tutsis fled to create Rwandan Patriotic Front

• 1990 rebel army returned forcing Hutu president to sign power sharing agreement

• Tensions were very high and fighting started when a jet carrying the Rwandan President was shot down
  • Killings spread around country as Hutu militia indiscriminately killed Tutsi civilians
    • Tribal cards identifying ethnic background meant life/death
    • UN forces fled out of fear leaving Rwanda by itself
      • Voted to leave by UN security council unanimously
  • Hutu was not opposed and massacre of Tutsi people spread
  • Hate propaganda through radio spreading violence