1. Apollo 11 Stone (Namibia. 25000 B.C.E Charcoal on stone)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in the Hun's mountains of Namibia
      2. It was founded along with 7 other tablets that contained animal figures
      3. Founded during the Apollo 11 moon landings hence the name
   2. Content:
      1. Cave stones with animal-like figures with human legs
      2. Thought to be a Therianthrope. Animals resembles a feline body and human hind legs
   3. Form:
      1. Made out of charcoal on cave stone
      2. Maybe used mineral based pigment bc they found ostrich egg painted
   4. Function:
      1. Unknown but it is small enough to be carried in one’s hand

1. Great Hall of the Bulls (Lascaux, France. Paleolithic Europe. 15000-13000 B.C.E. Rock painting)
   1. Context
      1. Stone Age
      2. Dordogne, France , Cave- 250 meters long, Hunter and gatherer lifestyle
      3. In 1963 original was closed but a replica was built to preserve the artwork
   2. Content
      1. Animals that were of importance (bulls, horses, cattle, deer)
      2. Human vs animals
   3. Form
      1. Charcoal and ochre on nonporous rock
      2. Hierarchical scale
      3. Patterns were prominent (could tell us about our past)
      4. Only one human painting
   4. Function
      1. Shows the importance of survival
      2. Used for religious rituals, storytelling and preserving the history

1. Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine (Tequixquiac, central Mexico. 14000-7000 B.C.E. Bone)
   1. Context:
      1. Prehistoric-no written record
      2. Lost to scholars for about 60 years. It was privately owned
      3. Spiritual significance of sacrum. Pelvic bone is the fulcrum of the body & central to internal organs.
      4. Could be a symbol of fertility or connection to ancestry and posterity
   2. Content:
      1. Head of Canine, natural shape of sacrum bone probably suggested image of canine to the carver
      2. Nostrils, mouth
   3. Form:
      1. Made from the now fossilized remains of the sacrum-triangular pelvic bone of a camelid (now extinct)
   4. Function:
      1. Unknown but prehistoric artisans drew/painted/carved sculpted what they saw in their everyday life, so choice to render image of a canine makes sense

1. Running Horned Woman (Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria. 6000-4000 B.C.E. Pigment on Rock)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in an area with high elevation & unique topography
      2. Hunter & gatherer society
      3. Thousands of paintings were found in the area
      4. Found in Algeria, Africa
   2. Content:
      1. White dots- body paint
      2. A horned woman running with arm and shin guards
      3. People running along with the horned woman
   3. Form:
      1. Hierarchical scale
      2. Pigment on rock
      3. Illusion of movement
      4. Profile perspective
   4. Function:
      1. Emphasized importance of survival
      2. Recognition of the importance animal and human relationship

1. Beaker with Ibex Motifs (Susa, Iran. 4200-3500 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in Iran
      2. Belong to the susa people
   2. Content:
      1. Central ibex (mountain goat)
      2. Running greyhound like animals
      3. Diamond shapes at the top of the beaker
      4. Birds encircling the top of the beaker
   3. Form:
      1. Painted terra cotta
      2. Geometric lines & shapes
   4. Function:
      1. For funerary practices

1. Anthropomorphic Steele (Arabian Peninsula. 4th millennium B.C.E. Sandstone)
   1. Context:
      1. Pre-Islamic Northern Saudi Arabia
      2. Found with 60 other steeles
      3. Fertile ground and area
   2. Content:
      1. Represent a human
      2. Trapezoid head with a horizontal necklace along with an awl
      3. The waist has a belt with two daggers
   3. Form:
      1. Made from sandstone
      2. Carvings are not intricate
      3. Bas-relief carving
   4. Function:
      1. Steele - a vertical stone monument or marker often inscribed text or relief carving
      2. Shows the importance of human figure

1. Jade Cong (Liangzhu, China. 3300-2200 B.C.E. Carved Jade)
   1. Context:
      1. Developed in Yangzi delta (Neolithic era)
      2. Farming society
   2. Content:
      1. Square hollow tube
      2. Represents dead ancestors
      3. Lines and circles = animals, humans, and monsters
   3. Form:
      1. Made from jade
      2. Precise engravings (created from sanding the jade)
      3. Bas relief
   4. Function:
      1. Show power and wealth
      2. Protect in afterlife, Found in graves, Connections to nature, rectangle= earth, circle= heavens of the sky

1. Stonehenge (Wiltshire, UK. Neolithic Europe. 2500-1600 B.C.E. Sandstone)
   1. Context:
      1. Founded in Salisbury Plain England
      2. 1st phrase started around 3100 B.C.E. (this would be be concurrent w/ first dynasties of ancient Egypt)
      3. Construction continued the next 500 years. Building the structure would require precise planning and massive amount of labor
      4. Used machinery to get the lintel stones on top of the post stones
      5. Long term communal effort, shows that they are sophisticated
   2. Content:
      1. 3 Phases (Constructions), Before pyramids
      2. Concentric circles of huge stones- lintel stones are carved to create the curved lines of a circle
      3. Huge pits dugged which allows stones to stay upright
   3. Form:
      1. Made mainly of bluestone which is very durable
      2. Post and lintel construction
      3. Monolithic Stones
   4. Function:
      1. Evident that the 2nd stage of construction, Stonehenge was used as a burial site (all Burials were males aged 20-50 important figures)
      2. Horseshoes of trilithons frames mark both mid-summer solstice and midwinter sunset (longest/shortest day of the year)

1. The Ambum Stone (Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. 1500 B.C.E. Greywacke)
   1. Context:
      1. Neolithic
      2. Settled communities which allowed more time for sculpture
      3. Greywacke: Really hard to carve long lasting and durable; valuable
   2. Content:
      1. Most likely a depiction of an Echidna, which is an egg-laying mammal that’s native to the New Guinea region
      2. The Ambum stone’s rounded belly provides balance and allows it to be a freestanding sculpture
   3. Form:
      1. Used substances carving techniques which means they subtracted a certain amount of greywacke stone to create they floaty neck
   4. Function:
      1. Unknown. But easy to pass around. Perhaps some religious purpose, buried w/ dead people

1. Tlatilco Female Figurine (Central Mexico, sites of Tlatilco. 1200-900 B.C.E. Ceramic)
   1. Context:
      1. Founded with many others by brick makers who were getting clay
      2. Appears to have come from graves
   2. Content:
      1. Figure of female form
      2. Elaborate style hair and lively expression
      3. Deformities: lack of defined hands and feet, 2 faces (may symbolize duality: yin/yang or evil/good)
   3. Form:
      1. Balanced through symmetry textured hair, heavy bottom
      2. Rarely depicted males but when they are they are often wearing masks/costumes
   4. Function:
      1. May have been part of a burial process

1. Terra Cotta Fragments (Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. 1000 B.C.E. incised)
   1. Context:
      1. Created by the artisans in the Lapita culture
      2. Was discovered in New Caledonia islands ~about 85,000 indigenous people lived on these islands
   2. Content:
      1. Clear anthropomorphic figure depicted
      2. faces=highly geometric, large,
      3. Different groups have specific designs in their pottery.
   3. Form:
      1. Made from molded terra cotta , a reddish, brown, unglazed type of clay
      2. Used method called dentate stamping involves carving designs into existing natural materials
   4. Function:
      1. Fragments are from a pot used to store food
      2. Could have been a form of reverence for ritualistic/religious usage since pottery was a large part of Lapita Culture
      3. Pottery was exchanged within this group: this shows trade and communication

1. White Temple and its Ziggurat (Uruk [modern Warka, Iraq]. Sumerians. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud Brick)
   1. Context:
      1. Located in Iraq
   2. Content:
      1. 40 feet tall
      2. Tripartite plan
         1. Rectangular central hall
         2. Three entrances
      3. White temple
         1. North, west and east entrances
         2. Chambers with northeast with wood shelves
         3. North end contained a podium and altar
         4. Found lion & leopard bones
      4. Ziggurat
         1. Raised platform with sloping sides
         2. Has a stairway and has
   3. Form:
      1. Made out of mudrock and asphalt top
      2. Whitewashed
   4. Function :
      1. For government and religious purpose
      2. Rituals & sacrifices ( dedicated to Anu)

1. Palette of King Narmer (Predynastic Egypt. 3000-2920 B.C.E. Greywacke.)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in the temple of Horus
      2. Made during the unification of lower and upper Egypt
      3. For King Narmer
   2. Content:
      1. Contains The head of goddess Bat
      2. King Narmer with a bull tail and a lower Egpytian custom (kilt)
      3. Enemies decapitated and castrated
      4. Bull (King Narmer) knocking down walls
   3. Form:
      1. Carved from a grayish siltstone
      2. 2 feet long
   4. Function:
      1. Used for grinding up makeup (ex: Eye makeup and lipstick)
      2. Ceremonial; dedicated to a god
      3. Was also an object placed in graves

1. Statues of Votive Figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq) (Sumerians. 2900-2600 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone)
   1. Context:
      1. Aspects of Mesopotamia religion is the votive figures
      2. Worshippers set up statues so that the statues would worship in place of the owners when owners leave the shrine
   2. Content:
      1. Figure of male and female donors
      2. Eyes are larger than hands (hierarchical scale)
      3. Inscription - wish to be granted and/or ask a god to look upon worshipers favorably
   3. Form:
      1. Alabaster
      2. Pedestal
      3. 1 feet 3 inches
      4. Individualistic characteristics
      5. Eyes made of lapis lazuli-
      6. V-shaped bodies
      7. Brows - dark shells, limestone,bitumen
   4. Function:
      1. Portable
      2. Stand- in worshipper

1. Seated Scribe (Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty 2620-2500 B.C.E. Painted Limestones)

i.

ii. iii.

i.

ii. iii.

iv.

1. Context:

Depicts a seated scribe Scribes were the one of the few people that could write and read Egyptian Scribes were used to write down history and records

1. Content:

Scribe holds a papyrus scroll Tranquil face = wisdom Scribe at work Sitting = position of royalty or respect

1. Form:

1. Body is limestone

1. Nipples are made of wood

1. Individualistic features

1. The scribe would have been placed on a description
   1. Function:
      1. For funerals
      2. Created due to the respect the scribe had in society

1. Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at UR (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). (Sumerian. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in south Iraq
      2. Prosperous and fertile grounds
      3. Found in the graves of Ur (one grave contained 74 sacrifices)
   2. Content:
      1. One side shows men bringing crops and fish
      2. Another side is the war
      3. Enemies of war- naked and bleeding given to the king
      4. Divided into 3 registers
      5. Hierarchical scale King is larger than others to show importance
      6. Talons folding an arrow- symbol of war
      7. Olive branch - symbol of peace
   3. Form:
      1. Mosaic tiles made from shells (from Persia), red limestone (from India), blue lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan)
      2. Small; portable
   4. Function:
      1. Mostly unknown
      2. Possibilities
         1. Music box
         2. Commemoration art
         3. A wallet (something to hold currency)
      3. Standard was a flag brought into battle (maybe held a flag in the past)

1. Great Pyramids of Giza (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx (Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. 2550-2490 B.C.E. Cut Limestone)
   1. Context:
      1. Tallest things for over 4000 years
      2. People were buried with all the things they need in life
      3. Cosway=elevated road led to nile-river
      4. When dead=boat arrive up cosway funeral temple taken to pyramid
      5. Pyramid of Khufu:
         1. Tallest of the 3 (481ft), 2300000 blocks over 50 tons
         2. king/queen chamber
      6. Pyramid of Khafre:
         1. 2nds tallest but looks tallest because it’s on higher grounds
         2. Contains a Sphinx: carved into the bedrock, symbol of royal power.

Lion with the head of Khafre

1. Pyramid of Menkaure:
   1. Smallest (213 ft)
   2. Most complex chambers of the 3
   3. Held Menkaure’s black stones
   4. Held many statues of the king

1. Content:
   1. 3 major pyramids for 3 rulers over 3 generations
   2. Representations of the passages of the dead
   3. Pyramids = close to cities

1. Form:
   1. Bedrocks, corestones, Tura limestone, casing red granite, mortar, edges = aligned with cardinal points

1. Function:
   1. Burial sites for kings
   2. Royal mortuary complex
   3. Social structure
   4. Reflect solar cycle

1. King Menkaura and Queen (Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke)
   1. Context:
      1. During the old kingdom during fourth dynasty
      2. Menkaure was the son of Khafre
   2. Content:

1. Depicts Egyptian king Menkaure and his wife(unsure who it is)

1. Wears traditional fake beard and headdress

1. Both are stepping forward with left foot shows stepping into the afterlife

1. Individualized & young facial and body characteristics

1. Menkaura is slightly taller than his wife

1. Both have nude upper bodies and wearing a skirt
   1. Form:

1. No inscription

1. Made out old greywacke (hard to carve)

1. Rigid postures
   1. Function:

1. Communicates the divinity of the pharaoh

1. Memorial structure

1. Used to make sure the pharaoh would reach the afterlife

1. The Code of Stele of Hammurabi (Babylon [modern Iran]. Susian. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt)
   1. Context:
      1. Babyloain kingdom
      2. King Hammurabi came into power
   2. Content:
      1. King Hammurabi receiving the code from the god of justice (Shamash)
      2. Laws written in cuneiform
      3. small register (showing right to be king)
      4. Over 300 laws that governed Babyloian society
      5. Law and punishments were severe
   3. Form:
      1. High relief
      2. 7.4 ft tall
      3. Basalt rock
   4. Function:
      1. To show the laws and punishments that will be enforced by Hammurbi

1. Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall (Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: 1550 B.C.E.; Hall: 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mudbrick)
   1. Context:
      1. Heavily used New Kingdom
      2. Temple: 1550 B.C.E.
      3. Hall: 1250 B.C.E.
      4. Certain areas = restrictive and only able to be accessed by elite
      5. Currently in poor state due to lack of preservation
   2. Content:
      1. Pharaohs continued to add to it overtime
      2. Clerestory lighting = natural and coming from opening above
      3. Creates a sort of heavenly godly feeling
      4. Existed in Karnak, near Luxor.

Egypt

1. Obelisk and sphinx make it Egyptian

1. Form:
   1. Made of cut sandstone and mudbrick
   2. Axis designed and created on the 4 cardinal direction points, had a both a north/south and an east/west axes
   3. Hypostyle = columns hence the name one of the largest temple construction
   4. Axial temple: longitudinal split symmetry
   5. Pylon-long gate way/courtyard

1. Function:
   1. Center of god Amun-Re
   2. Also honors several Egyptain gods and goddess
   3. Also known as the most select of places

1. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. 1473-1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite)
   1. Context:
      1. Hatshepsut = woman pharaoh
      2. New kingdom
      3. Hatshepsut wanted to prove that she was chosen to be Pharaoh
   2. Content:
      1. Kneeling statue of Hatshepsut - shows the masculine features of past Pharaohs (fake beard, deemphasized breast, and headdress) - 9 ft tall
      2. Temple had a relief carvings and statues of the Pharaoh with the gods
   3. Form:
      1. Temple cut from a cliff side
      2. Kneeling statue - made from granite
      3. Temple had a colonnade terrace (aligned with the winter solstice )
   4. Function:
      1. Funerary temple to Pharaoh Hatshepsut

1. Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters (New Kingdom [Amarna], 18th Dynasty 1353-1335 B.C.E. Limestone).
   1. Context:
      1. Akhenaton changed the kingdom to only worshipping one god (Aten, the sun god )
      2. Akhenaton and Nefertiti made themselves the representative of Aten iii.
   2. Content:
      1. Depicts Akhenaton, Nefertiti and his three daughters sitting on a throne
      2. Aten is represented by a sun in the center
      3. Ankhs (symbol of life) radiate from the sun toward the family
      4. Shows family is connect to Aten
   3. Form:
      1. Bas - relief carving
      2. Limestone
      3. Disproportionate bodies
      4. Softer body positions (sloping and relaxed forms)
      5. Around 32 cm. high
      6. stylistic
   4. Function:
      1. Meant to be apart of house altar
      2. Iconography - depicts a god

1. Tutankhamun’s Tomb, innermost coffin (New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semi precious stones)
   1. Context:
      1. Tut is the son of Akhenaten and Nefertiti
   2. Content:
      1. Pharaoh Tut sarcophagus had three coffins for the kings body
      2. Inner coffin was made out of solid gold
      3. Outer coffins had gems like lapis lazuli and turquoise
      4. Had a death mask
      5. The pharaoh held a crook and flail (symbols of the Pharaoh’s right to rule)
      6. Had depictions of Nekhbet (a vulture) and Wadjet (cobra)
      7. Back of death mask is covered in a spell to help the Pharaoh get to the afterlife
      8. Wore a fake beard
   3. Form:
      1. Innermost coffin was made out of gold
      2. Gold with many different gems
   4. Function:
      1. Meant to protect the body of the pharaoh
      2. Help the pharaoh reach the afterlife

1. Last judgement of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb. Book of the Dead (New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. 1275 B.C.E. Painted papyrus scroll)
   1. Context:
      1. Book of Dead = text with spells, prayers and inscriptions that helped the dead in the afterlife
      2. “Coffin Text’ instructions written on coffin
      3. Founded buried with HuNefer
      4. Horus 4 children are responsible for carving for Hunefer’s internal organs, represent 4 cardinal points
      5. Art contains Egyptian conventions
   2. Content:
      1. Upper left = Hunefer speaking to deities explaining how he has lived a good ife and deserve to be in afterlife
      2. Depicted in white robe
      3. Led by Anubis=jackal- headed god who is carrying

an Ankh-symbol of eternal life

1. Anubis = seemed with a scale, weighing Hunefer’s heart with a feather, from Ma’at (associated with living an ethical, ordered life). If feather weighs more = ethical life. If heart weighs more=beast Ammit (crocodile lion, hippo beast) will devour, Hunefer’s heart = unethical life

1. Horus (a falcon head son of Osiris) hold an ankh introduces film to Osiris wife and Neftis (Osiris sister) stand behind ostris and join him in making judgment on Hunefer

1. Form:
   1. Drawing/ painting on papyrus scroll

1. Function:
   1. To prove Hunefer had lived an ethical life and deserved to enter the afterlife

1. Lamassu from the Citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad. Iraq) (Neo- Assyrian. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.)
   1. Context:
      1. Mesopotamia was often in war and being conquered by different people
      2. Palace of Sargon
      3. Founded the capital in modern day Khorsabad
      4. Made during the height of Assyrian power
   2. Content:
      1. Human headed winged bull (protective genies called Lamassu) guarded entrances
      2. Carved from a single block
      3. The Lamassu has five legs
      4. Curly long tail
      5. Expressive eyes
      6. Has a crown, detailed wings, double horns,decorations, beard, earrings
      7. Looked as if it is moving forward if seen from the side
   3. Form:
      1. High relief
      2. 13.9 ft tall
   4. Function:
      1. A spiritual guardian figure of city and important places
      2. Symbol of the kings power
      3. Held up the citadel

1. Athenian Agora (Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.-150 C.E. Plan)
   1. Context:
      1. Was invaded by the Perisans but was rebuilt later on
      2. Citizens (male Athenians) were able to participate in government
      3. Meritocracy and equality before the law
   2. Content:
      1. The stoa - government, business
      2. Athena -patron goddess
   3. Form:
      1. Buildings were made out of marble
   4. Function:
      1. Originally a burial ground during the Bronze and Iron ages
      2. Started as a market place then transformed into a government building
      3. Progressed into a sacred temple dedicated to Athena

1. Anavysos Kouros (Archaic Greek. 530 B.C.E. Marble with remnants of paint)
   1. Context:
      1. During the Archaic period
      2. First obtained iron tools
      3. Unknown artist
      4. Found in a cemetery Anavysos
      5. Grave marker for Krisos
   2. Content:
      1. Young naked male
      2. A little bit larger than life size
      3. Kouros - youth
      4. Set up by an aristocratic family
   3. Form:
      1. Idealized male body- strong and lean
      2. Stiff body posture - influenced by egyptain art
      3. Naked body
      4. Neatly braided hair
   4. Function:
      1. It was very popular
      2. Used as grave markers
      3. Offerings to a god

1. Peplos Kore from the Acropolis (Archaic Greek. 530 B.C.E. Marble, painted details)
   1. Context:
      1. Created in 530 BCE
      2. Unknown artist
   2. Content:
      1. Young maiden
      2. A peplos robe
      3. Arm extended while holding something
      4. Rigid stance - Eqytian influence
      5. Facial expression - transcendent & wise
   3. Form:
      1. Once brightly pigmented ( red hair colored eyes)
      2. Missing left arm
      3. Tightened wrist
      4. Wearing a dress
      5. Neatly braided hair
   4. Function:
      1. To honor or depict a goddess
      2. Placeholder in front of a temple
      3. Physical representation of a goddess

1. Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Etruscan. 520 B.C.E. Terra cotta)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in Etrusan tomb
      2. Etrusans lived in northern Italy
      3. Made in 520 BCE
      4. Etrusan women held a higher importance
   2. Content:
      1. Deceased woman and man together in intimacy
      2. Archaic smile
      3. Both people are reaching out
      4. The sarcophagus takes form of a bed
   3. Form:
      1. Painted terra cotta
      2. High-relief
      3. Relaxed figure
   4. Function:
      1. Grave marker

1. Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes (Persepolis, Iran. Persian. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone)
   1. Content:
      1. 72 columns, each 24 meters tall, extremely intricate
      2. Columbs capitals = animals: bulls, eagles, lions, all symbol of royalty
      3. 2 monuments of staircases
         1. The walls were carved with illustrations of hundreds of figures bringing offerings to the king from all the states conquered by Persian Empire
   2. Form:
      1. Carved primarily of limestone
      2. The carvings on the wall were bas-relief
      3. Display the importance and authority of King
      4. Column capital = high relief
      5. Hall = hypostyle architecture
   3. Function:
      1. Represents the expensive

nature of the Persian Empire and emperor’s power

1. Ceremonial Hall

1. Served as the center of Persian Empire’s capital

1. Temple of Minerva (Veii, near Rome, Italy) and sculpture of Apollo (master sculptor Vulca. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mudbrick, or tufa [volcanic rock]; terra cotta sculpture)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in Ertuscan
   2. Content:
      1. Long deep tufa - block foundations
         1. Square footprint
      2. Triple cellar (Three-room configuration)
      3. Temple held masks, antefixes, decorative details
      4. Terra cotta statues were once placed on the edge of the roof
         1. Which was set up in a horizontal register
   3. Form:
      1. Terra cotta
      2. Tufa - a porous rock similar to limestone
      3. Doric columns
      4. Stone foundations
      5. Wood, mudbrick, terra cotta superstructure
      6. Split into two
         1. Deep front porch with wide space Tuscan columns
         2. Triple cella
         3. Back portion has triple cella
      7. High podium
   4. Function:
      1. Dedicated to Minerva
      2. Shows Etruscan assimilation of Greek gods
      3. Values of the gods and goddess changed slightly for Etrucsan

1. Tomb of the Triclinium (Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and Fresco)
   1. Context:
      1. Iron Age - peak of Etrsucan culture
      2. Wealth based on natural resources
      3. Iron from Greece and north Africa
      4. Etruscans believed that the afterlife will be like life on Earth
      5. Funerary customs
         1. Did not bury people
         2. Intricate funerals for members of the elite
         3. Funerals had games, banquet, music and dancing
         4. Tombs had furniture
         5. Carved the deceased into the sarcophagus
         6. Had a triclinium - three couched dining room
      6. Tomb found in Tarquinia
   2. Content:
      1. Tomb has chambers
      2. Painted fresco walls
      3. Left wall - four dancers and a male musician
      4. Right wall has a similar painting
      5. One fresco painting is faded most likely had 3 couches with recliner diners and 2 attendants
      6. Animals under couches
      7. Men dressed in robes
      8. Trees and shrubs
      9. Nude cup bearer
      10. Tomb ceiling is checkered
   3. Form:
      1. Fresco paintings
      2. Cambers cut out of subterranean rock
      3. Stylistic depictions
      4. Angular and stiff postures
      5. Gender depiction
      6. Men - darker skin tone
      7. Women - lighter skin tone
   4. Function:
      1. For funerary rituals
      2. Contained the deceased and offerings to God
      3. Shared a final meal with the deceased
         1. Proportion of meal was left in
         2. Reinforce social economic

1. Niobides Krater (Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. 460-45- B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique [white highlights])
   1. Context:
      1. Methods: Throwing clay is centered or rotating wheels. While rotating, the potter pulls up the clay and forms it to desired shape. Turning and joining: Trimming superfluous and uneven clay to refine the shape of a vase/reduce the thickness walls. Burnishing: used to create smooth surfaces
      2. Each period of time had it’s own techniques
         1. Geometric period: geometric patterns
         2. Orientalizing period: animals professions and near eastern motifs
         3. Archaic and Classical Periods: vase displays human and mythological activities.
      3. To produce the characteristic red and black colors: used liquid clay as paint
   2. Content:
      1. 2 sides
      2. Front: Niobe: 14 kids and bragged about it
         1. Leto = mother of Apollo and Artemis. They got revenge for their mother by killing Niobe’s kid
         2. Perfect profile
            1. Artemis = reaching quiver for another arrow
            2. Apollo = drawing his bow back
         3. Niobe kids = more frontal
      3. Back: Hercules holding club and wearing lion skin
         1. Athena = left
         2. Maybe it's not a painting of Hercules, maybe Greek soldiers are coming to honor him and ask for protection
   3. Form:
      1. Figure = stiff, early classical period, severe style. Made of clay
   4. Function:
      1. Type of Vessel = calyx-krater
      2. Large purch bowl
      3. Used to mix water and wine

1. Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) (Polykleitos. Original 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy [marble] of Greek original [bronze])
   1. Context:
      1. Found in palestra (place for athletes to work in) in Pompeii
      2. One of the most copied sculpture in Greeks
      3. Created at time when Greeks were in awe of the mathematics of perfection of human body
      4. Manipulated symmetry
      5. Graceful arrangement of the body based on tilted shoulders and hips and bent knees
   2. Content:
      1. Celebrates the human body, it's beauty, and strength
      2. Earliest examples of contrapposto: s-shaped curve off his spine, better balance, weight on his right foot, more naturalistic, tilted life-like appearance
      3. Strong sense of harmony: Left arm/ right leg=relaxed, right arm/left leg=tensed
      4. Broad shoulders/thick torso, muscular
      5. Hold an iron spear
      6. Depicts everyone ideal self
   3. Form:
      1. White marble
      2. Subtractive sculpture
      3. Life size=84 inches
   4. Function:
      1. People can learn from it
      2. Understand proportions
      3. Canons - a set of guidelines, outlining the ideal man based on ratios and measurements
      4. Showcase the beauty

1. Acropolis (Athena, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble.)
   1. Context:
      1. has been ransacked and burnt, blown up, etc multiple times
   2. Content:
      1. there are multiple buildings most notably the Parthenon, Temple of Nike, old Temple of Athena, Altar of Athena Polias, Rome and Augustus altar, Athena Promachos, Erechtheion, and Propylaea. All with unique detail and purpose.
   3. Form:
      1. Extremely large, classical period
   4. Function:
      1. Most important religious center in Greece

1. Grave Stele of Hegeso (Attributed to Kallimachos 410 B.C.E. marble and paint)
   1. Context:
      1. Diphlon cemetery in Athens
      2. Hegeso: woman, domestic, basically in a house on the stele: 2 walls and a roof
      3. Not citizens of Athens
      4. Women were defined by their relationship to men
      5. noble , her father grave plot was super magnificent
      6. Attributed to the sculptor Kallimachos
   2. Content:
      1. Relief sculpture of Hegeso and servant girl
      2. Servant holds jewelry box and Hegeso holds and look at a necklace (dowry)
      3. Drapery: elaborate forms and swirls, very close to her body
      4. She does not touch the ground: her foot is on a pedestal
      5. Inscription says Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos
   3. Form:
      1. Stele 5’2”
      2. Detailing of drapery: naturalistic, follows fold of body
   4. Function:
      1. Grave stones

1. Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic Greek 190 B.C.E Marble)
   1. Context:
      1. Stands on the prow of a huge marble ship to spread the messages
      2. Had huge impact on the traditions of western art that followed
      3. Louvre in Paris, France
   2. Content:
      1. Depicts Nike = goddess of victory
      2. Missing her head and both arms but used to hold a trumpet or cupping her hand around her mouth to announce a naval victory
      3. The way her body is sculpted=creates a spiraling effect: her wings reach back her chest forward, her feet down
      4. Wet drapery technique
   3. Form:
      1. Over 9ft tall
      2. Made of Thasian and Parian marble
      3. Was found in temple complex on the island of Samothrace called sanctuary of the Great Gods
   4. Function:
      1. statue=ex-voto (offering to deity) most commemorate a naval victory
      2. The offering would serve to gain the deities favor protecting sailors and armies against storms and enemies.

1. Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon (Asia Minor [present day Turkey]. Hellenistic Greek. 175 B.C.E. Marble [architecture and sculpture])
   1. Context:
      1. Geographically desirable
      2. Pergamon Museum: tried to recreate it
   2. Content:
      1. Battle of Greek myth pantheon of gods V.S. giant to determine the controller of the universe
      2. Athena
         1. Fights Alkyoneus, main giant, as his mother looks in horror
         2. Appears triumphant as she fights
         3. Being crowned by winged Nike
         4. Uses battle shakes to aid in defeating the Giants
         5. Gigantoleira= slayer of the giants.
      3. Zeus:
         1. Battles 3 giants at once with help of an eagle (above) and his lightning bolt
         2. Cloaked in realistically ruffled robes
         3. 2 of 3 giants he had already defeated
   3. Form:
      1. 35.64×33.4 metres
      2. High relief sculpture
      3. More prominent gods and figures=higher relief
   4. Function:
      1. Worship of Greek gods
      2. Representation of Greek power
      3. Sacrifices=made on top of stairs

1. House of the Vettii (Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. Second century B.C.E.; rebuilt 62- 79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco)
   1. Context:
      1. House owned by Aulus Vettius Conviva and his brother, Aulus Vettius Restitutus
      2. Conviva= Augutalis- a position at the highest civic office a freeman could attain
   2. Content:
      1. Wall painting=decorative schema
      2. 4th style wall painting=expansive
      3. Contains large central Halls (Atria)
      4. Largest of room opening on peristyle contains painting in red/black
         1. Mythical winged gods of Love
      5. Impluvium (water basin) lies at center of atrium for collecting rain
      6. Increasingly sexual nature of paintings and artwork marks a decline in Pompeii moral standards
      7. Phallic figures god priapus, females being sexual, and depictions of nude males symbolizes fertility
      8. Painting depicts Cupid collecting grapes
   3. Form:
      1. Covers 1,100 sq meters
      2. Demonstrates Pompeii’s late artistic and architectural style
      3. The house paintings=indicate a theme of forward-thinking
   4. Function:
      1. 2 lockrooms for storing valuables were displayed proudly in the vestibulum
      2. The brothers went from freedmen to very wealthy

1. Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii (Republican Roman 100 B.C.E. Mosaic)
   1. Context:
      1. Found in the city of Pompeii which was preserved in ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
      2. It was found in the House of Faun, named after the bronze statue of a faun found there
      3. The Battle of Issus (333 BC) which was a turning point in ancient history because the ruler of Persia (Darius III) is ordering a retreat of his troops
      4. Darius has a look of desperation and history says that Alexander pitied his family and let them live
      5. Alexander is not depicted in his typical form here. It's; more natural
   2. Content:
      1. Depicts the Battle of of Alexander the Great and Darius III
      2. Very dramatic and chaotic scene with a sense of mentum as the massive chariot is turning around
      3. Excellent use of foreshortening in the horse
      4. Alexander breastplate has Medusa’s head, which was used as a magical protection spell from evil, it also symbolizes divine birth
   3. Form:
      1. Floor mosaic, 2.72 by 5.13 meters
      2. Made from more than one million and a half pieces of stones and glass
      3. Possibly based on a wall painting done in 315 B.C.E. hellenistic period by a greek artist named Philoxenos because it matches a description of the painting written by Pliny
   4. Function:
      1. Found in the House of Faun which was the nicest mansion found in Pompeii which means it was piece of art aristocrats would have invested in for perhaps their own enjoyment and for the enjoyment of guests

1. Seated Boxer (Hellenistic Greek. 100 B.C.E. Bronze)
   1. Context:
      1. Breaking away from the traditional idealized, heroic male nude
      2. Still holding onto the pre-hellenisitic ideas: his body is idealized with perfect muscles but in contrast, his posture and face show humanity
   2. Content:
      1. The humanity found in this work creates a sense of presence
      2. Muscular, powerful, and defeated
      3. Covering his head and face is bits of copper which posed next to the bronze resembles blood, covering his face and hands with wounds
   3. Form:
      1. Lost wax casting (hollow cast)
      2. Seated posture
      3. Made in different sections that were welded together
      4. Broken nose and shattered teeth
   4. Function:
      1. Attributed with healing powers
      2. Represents the cultural shift of the Hellenistic period
      3. Could have been a votive statue dedicated to a boxer
      4. Identifying him as the boxer of Quirinal
      5. Could be made to represent the culture of boxing in Ancient Greece.

1. Head of a Roman Patrician (Republican Rome 75-50 B.C.E. Marble)
   1. Context:
      1. Patricians= worked in senate, wealthy and educated
      2. Male gaze
   2. Content:
      1. Wrinkled and toothless with w/ sagging jowls
      2. Physical traits meant to convey seriousness of mind and the virtue of a public career by showing the mark of the endeavors.
      3. Wrinkles and other sign of ageing on this portrait serve to point out his admirable qualities of experience, seriousness and determination
   3. Form:
      1. Otricoli, head
      2. 1’2” High
      3. Marble
         1. Polychromed (painted in several colors)
         2. Terracotta was used and then painted with encaustic (otherwise referred to as a hot wax process)
      4. Veristic style=verism
         1. A form of realism (hyper-realistic)
         2. Over exaggerated
         3. Influenced by the tradition of ancestral imaginations. Death wax masks of notable ancestors were kept and display by the family
   4. Function:
      1. Displays respect
      2. Symbolizes wisdom, determination, experience, valor, and strength of Roman Republicans

1. Augustus of Prima Porta (Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E. Marble)
   1. Context:
      1. Augustus claims to be reestablishing the senate but in reality is stabilizing Rome so he can be Rome first real emperor
      2. Utilize canon of proportions
      3. Cupid rides a dolphin and symbolizes Augustus win in battle of Actium
      4. Cupid=show Augustus ancestors=Aeneas and Caesar
   2. Content:
      1. Political significance, filled with Roman political ideology
      2. Idealized statue of him, very young and attractive
      3. Cupid is pulling down his garment at his ankle symbolizes his own divine lineage
      4. The cuirass or breast plate depicts the god of the sky and goddess of the Earth, divine convergence on his sides=female personification of the nations conquered by Rome.
      5. Sun God and Sky God (Sol and Caclus) are at top of Cuirass and shines down on all part of the Empire
   3. Form:
      1. Found in the villa of Livia (his wife) at Prima Porta
      2. Free standing, sculpture in the round
      3. Bas Relief carving on breast plate
      4. Standing contrapposto
   4. Function:
      1. Propaganda: the statue shows the positive qualities wanted to portray himself to the people in godlike way
      2. Demonstrating Augustus military power

1. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) (Rome. Italy. Imperial Roman. 70-80 C.E. Stones and concrete)
   1. Context:
      1. Original called Flavian Amphitheater
      2. Named after the family who paid for the Colosseum
      3. Later was referred to as the Colosseum
      4. Vespasian built this as a gift to the Greek people
      5. Showed the social statues based on where a person was sitting
      6. POWs , slaves and no-citizens (besides women) were able to fight for their freedom
   2. Content:
      1. Had vaults and arches
      2. Oval shaped
      3. Four amin levels
      4. 1-3 levels had arched windows
      5. 4 levels had no solid wall no windows( for slaves foreigners and women)
      6. Flat stage with sand in the center
         1. Sand was to absorb blood and bodily fluids
         2. The hypogeum
            1. The underground part of the colosseum
            2. Had animal pens, trap doors, and a network
      7. Level 1 - tuscan
      8. Level 2 - ionic
      9. Level 3 - Corthian
      10. Velarium
          1. A retractable awning that was used as shade for onlookers
   3. Form:
      1. Oval Amphitheater (stadium)
         1. To Greek theaters put together
      2. Inner ring made from concrete
      3. Outer ring made from Travertine ( limestone)
      4. Held 50,000 -80,000 people
      5. Covers 6 acres
      6. 50 meters high
      7. 189 meters long
      8. 156 meters wide
   4. Function:
      1. Public entrainment
      2. Battles and swordfights

1. Forum of Trajan (Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete [architecture]; marble [column].)
   1. Context:
      1. Fora- open city
      2. Were found in any Roman city at the heart
      3. Always included a temple
      4. Trajan had expanded the Roman Empire to all over the Mediterranean
   2. Content:
      1. Commemorate the Trajan’s victories
      2. Highlights of when the Trajan defeated the Dacians
      3. Shows his proud military acts
      4. Full of Greek and Roman literature
   3. Form:
      1. Apollodorus of Damascus was the engineer
      2. Had a massive entrance way
      3. Column of Trajan 1.
      4. Past the forum was Basilica Ulpia
         1. Was filled with structures, carving
         2. Laid the foundation of modern cruciform church
   4. Function:
      1. Commemorate the victories and accomplishments of the Trajan
      2. Solidified power and greatness
      3. Worked as civic, ceremonial space

1. Pantheon (Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing)
   1. Context:
      1. Commissioned by Hadrian
      2. Most influential building in the Renaissance
      3. Inscription above doorway, reads tribute to Marcus Agibba
   2. Content:
      1. Fitted in bronze, pediment-sculpture that acted out the battle of titans, 8 arches=housed statues of deities & emperors,
      2. Statues of Augustus & Agrippa stood in Apse at the end of colonnaded side aisles of entrance
      3. Huge amount of geometric representation, floor=concentric circles/squares
      4. Almost all of it's mathematically proportioned
      5. Hole in the Dome=oculus
         1. One great window, when it rains water comes in
   3. Form:

1. Reflects the movement of the heavens because of how sharp circle of light moves across building
   1. Corinthian columns= monolithic
   2. porch = rectilinear, upon entry the space opens up into a curvilinear, radial interior
   3. Structural system looks like it is based on a series of interesting arches-8 in total all where deities would have been housed on the interior
   4. Lighter materials used at the top of the dome
   5. 141 feet tall
   6. Function:
      1. Originally used as a temple to the gods, then made into a church
      2. Hadrian would hold court
      3. Pope used as a Catholic Church
      4. Expression of Hadrian wealth
      5. Oculus’s light functions as sundial.

1. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (Late Imperial Roman 250 C.E. Marble)
   1. Context:
      1. Sarcophagus start to appear more commonly in the beginning of 2nd century
      2. Found near a tomb near porta tiburtina (gate in the Aurelian walls of Rome)
      3. More focus on interaction between the people
      4. Typical style of Late Imperial rome=emotional subject matters
      5. Borrows from Greeks in battle from art. Depth of imagers actions and interactions departure from Greek Arts
   2. Content:
      1. Roman=good guys in this piece, idealized, confident, young looking
      2. The goths=Barbarians/Gauls (western Europe)=enemy, portrayed disdainfully
      3. The hero=center, clear focal point, open-chested, strong, armoured, no weapon, no helmet=invincible
      4. Movement is key in this piece
      5. Narrative piece
   3. Form:
      1. Very high relief
      2. Detailed carving, at some point the piece has 4 layers of figures on top of one another
      3. The figures along bottom are physically smaller, makes viewer feel like they are looking down upon them
      4. Uses contrast of light and darkness to guide a viewer’s eye
   4. Function:
      1. Created to mark the grave of a rich, unidentified Roman

1. Catacomb of Priscila (Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco)
   1. Context:
      1. Underground, in the north of Rome
      2. The oldest part of the catacombs: closest to the entrance of Priscilla’s villa
      3. A place where the earliest Christians were buried
   2. Content:
      1. 10km or more than 5 miles wide
      2. At least 40,000 tombs
      3. Multiple sarcophagus for family members
      4. Scenes from the bible are depicted on the wall
         1. Book of Daniel
   3. Form:
      1. Cubiculum
      2. Passageways are stacked on top of each other
      3. Roman first style painting: Building up of plaster on wall to look like marble
   4. Function:
      1. Burial location for the actual members of Priscilla’s family
      2. Not a place for worship

1. Santa Sabina (Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe 422-432 C.E. Brick and Stone, wooden roof)
   1. Context:
      1. In Rome, atop a hill
      2. Example of an ancient Constantinian basilica
      3. Roman Chrisitians chose it as the basis of their new churches