Table of Contents

AP US Government and Politics Review

Credit: TheAngrySquirrel48 on Reddit, this google doc: AP Gov Review

UNIT I: THE CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS

A. Enlightenment Philosophies:
B. The Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

C. The Constitution as an Instrument of Government

Federal Government does NOT have Power to:State Government does NOT have Power to:
• Suspend writ of habeas corpus except in times of national crisis• Enter into treaties with foreign countries
• Pass ex post facto laws or issue bills of attainder• Declare war
• Impose Export taxes• Maintain a standing army
• Use money from treasury w/o approval of appropriations bill• Print money
• Grant titles of nobility• Pass ex post facto laws or bill of attainder
• Grant titles of nobility
• Impose import or export duties
Advantages of FederalismDisadvantages of Federalism
• Mass participation• Lack of consistency
• Regional autonomy• efficiency
• Government a many levels• Bureaucracy
• Innovative methods

D. Amendment Process

  1. Amendment introduced to both houses of Congress
  1. Approved by ⅔ majority in each
  1. ¾ of state legislatures must ratify the amendment
    1. Number of votes required for ratification determined by states
      1. Mostreuire simple majority
    2. Congress can mandate a ratifying convention
      1. Used for 21st Amendment

E. Amendments

F. State and Local Governments

UNIT II: PUBLIC OPINION AND THE MEDIA

A. Characteristics of Public Opinion

B. Polls Measure Public Opinion

C. Where does Public Opinion Come from?

D. Political Ideologies

E. Public Opinion and the Mass Media

UNIT III: LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS

A. Political Parties

Democrats Tend to Be…Republicans Tend to Be…
Less disposed to spend on defenseMore disposed to spend on defense
Less disposed to use vouchers or other public funds to enable certain students to attend private/charter schoolsMore disposed to use vouchers or other public funds to enable certain students to attend private/charter schools
More disposed to spend money to advance social-welfare programsLess disposed to spend money to advance social-welfare programs
More disposed to use government money for public educationLess disposed to use government money for public education more disposed to grant tax relief to targeted programs
more disposed to grant tax relief to targeted programs such as the lower and middle classesMore disposed to grant tax relief to everyone, including the wealthy and corporations
Against private ownership of public weapons and supportive of broader regulations on the ownership of firearmsLess disposed to regulate firearms
B. Interest Groups

C. PACs and Super PACs

D. 527 Groups

UNIT IV: ELECTIONS

A. The Election Cycle

B. Media Influence on Elections

UNIT V: INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

A. Congress

B. The President

C. The Judiciary and the Law

D. The Bureaucracy

UNIT VI: PUBLIC POLICY

A. Making Policy

B. Economic Policy

C. Trade Policy

D. Domestic Policy

UNIT VII: CIVIL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES

A. First Amendment Rights and Restrictions

B. The Second Amendment Goes to Court

C. Rights of the Accused

D. Right of All Americans to Privacy

D. Civil Rights

Glossary

Adversarial system: a system of law in which the court is seen as a neutral where disputants can argue the merits of their cases

Affirmative Action: Government-mandated programs that seek to create special employment opportunities for minorities, women, and other victims of past discrimination

Amendment: addition to the Constitution. Amendments require approval by ⅔ of both houses and by ¾ of the states. The first amendments make up the Bill of Rights

Amicus curiae briefs: “Friend of the court” briefs that qualified individuals or organizations file in lawsuits to which they are not a party, so the judge may consider their advice in respect to matters of law that directly affect the cases in question

Appellate Jurisdiction: term used to describe courts whose role is to hear appeals from lower courts

Articles of Confederation: the United States’ first constitution. The government formed by the Articles of Confederation lasted from 1781 (the year before the end of the Revolutionary War) to 1789. The government under the Articles proved inadequate because it did not have the power to collect taxes from the states, nor could it regulate foreign trade to generate revenue from import and export tariffs.

Bicameral legislature: Consisting of two legislative houses. The United States has a bicameral legislature; its two houses are the House of Representatives and the Senate

Bill of Rights: First 10 amendments to the US Constitution. The Bill of Rights guarantees personal liberties and limits the powers of the government

Blanket primary: primary election in which voters may select a candidate from any party for each office. Blanket primaries use the same procedure as general elections (currently struck down by SCOTUS, but a variation exists in Louisiana and Washington)

Block grants: Federal money given to states with only general guidelines for its use. The states have the authority to decide how the money will be spent

Bread-and butter issues: those political issues that are specifically directed at the daily concerns of most working-class Americans such as job security, tax rates, wages, and employee benefits

Broad constructionism:belief that the Constitution should be interpreted loosely when concerning the restrictions it places of federal power. Broad constructionists emphasize the importance of the elastic clause

Brown v. Board of Education: the 1954 case n which the SCOTUS overturned the “separate but equal” standard as it applied to education. In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled that “Separate but equal facilities are inherently unequal”. “Separate but equal” had been the law of the land since the court had approved it in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Budget deficit: condition that arises when federal expenditures exceed revenues; in other words, when the government spends more money than it takes in

Budget resolution: set of budget guidelines that must pass both houses of Congress in identical form by April 15th. The budget resolution guides government spending for the following fiscal year.

Categorical grants: federal aid given to states with strings attached. To receive money, the states must agree to adhere to federally mandated guidelines for spending it.

Caucus: meeting of local party members for the purpose of choosing delegates to a national party convention. The term also refers to a meeting of the Democratic members of the House of Representatives,

Census: the process, mandated by the Constitution, by which the population of the US is officially every 10 years. Census data is then used to help distribute federal money and to reapportion congressional districts.

Checks and Balances: the system that prevents any branch of government from becoming too powerful by requiring the approval of more than one branch for all important acts

Civil court: court in which lawsuits are heard. In contrast, criminal cases are heard in criminal court

Civil disobedience: nonviolent civil disobedience requires activists to protest peacefully against laws they believe unjust and to be willing to accept arrest as a means of demonstrating the justice of their cause. The notion was popularized by 19th-century American writer Henry David Thoreau and was practiced by MArtin Luther King Jr.

Civil Liberties: those protections against government power embodied in the Bill of Rights and similar legislation. Civil liberties include the right to free speech, free exercise of religion, and right to a fair trial

Civil rights: those protections against discrimination by the government and individuals. Civil rights are intended to prevent discrimination based on race, religion, gender, ethnicity, physical handicap, or sexual orientation

Civil Rights Act of 1964; federal law that made segregation illegal in most public places, increased penalties and sentences for those convicted of discrimination in employment, and withheld federal aid from schools that discriminated on the basis of race or gender

Civil service system: method of hiring employees based on merit rather than on political beliefs or allegiances, This system replaced the spoils system in the US.

Class action lawsuit: a lawsuit filed in behalf of a group of people, and whose result affects that group of people. Interest groups such as the NAACP often use these as a means of asserting their influence over a policy decision

Clear and present danger test: interpretation by Justice Wendell HOlmes regarding limits on free speech if it present clear and present danger to the public or leads to illegal actions

Closed primary: Primary election in which voting is restricted to registered members of a political party

Cloture: a motion in the Senate to end debate, often used in the event of a filibuster. A cloture vote requires a ⅗ majority of the Senate.

Coalition: a combination of groups of people who work together to achieve a political goal. For example the coalition of the Democratic Party is largely made up of urban dwellers on the coasts, minority groups, and young people. Coalitions also form among legislators who work together to advance or defeat a particular bill.

Commander in chief: the president’s role as leader of all US military forces. This is one of the executive powers authorized in the Constitution

Concurrent powers: constitutional powers shared by the federal and state governments.

Conference committees: congressional committee that includes representatives of both houses of Congress. Their purpose is to settle differences between the House and Senate versions of bills that have been passed by their respective legislatures.

Congressional Budget Office: Congressional agency of budget experts who assess the feasibility of the president's plan and who help create Congress’ version of the federal budget

Congressional district: the geographically defined group of people on whose behalf a representative acts in the House of Representatives. Each state is divided into congressional districts of equal population, with larger states having more districts and representatives than small states. Congressional districts are reapportioned every 10 years according to new census data]

Conservative: a political ideology that tends to favor defense spending and school prayer and to disapprove of social programs, abortion, affirmative action, and a large, active government. Conservatives are generally affiliated with the Republican party

Constitutional convention: an as-of-yet untried method by which the Constitution May be amended. To call a constitutional convention, ⅔ of all state legislatures must petition the federal government; not to be confused with the Constitutional Convention when the Constitution was written.

Cooperative federalism: preeminent form of US federalism since the passage of the 14th Amendment initiated the long demise of dua federalism by providing the national government the means to enforce the rights of citizens against state infringements.. The Progressive Era, the New Deal, and the Great Society all increased federal involvement in state government. The result is a system called cooperative federalism in which the national and state governments share many powers.

CRiminal court: court in which criminal trials are heard. In contrast, lawsuits are heard in civil court

Dealignment:a recent trend in which voters act increasingly independent of a party affiliation. This is partially the result of television because candidates can appeal directly to the electorate without relying on their party. One consequence is split-ticket voting, which leads to a divided government in which neither party controls both the executive and the legislative branch.

Delegated powers: constitutional powers granted solely to the federal government

Direct democracy: form of government in which all enfranchised citizens vote on all matters of government. In contrast, in a representative democracy, voters choose representatives to vote for them on most government issues

Divided government: a government in which the presidency is controlled by one party and Congress is controlled by the other. This has become a common occurrence in recent decades as voters have begun to act more independently of parties and increasingly vote split tickets.

Double jeopardy: the act of trying an individual a second time after he has been acquitted on the same charges, Double jeopardy is prohibited by the Constitution

Dual federalism: form of US federalism during the nation’s early history. During this period, the federal and state governments remained separate and independent. What little contact most Americans had with government occured on the state level, as the national government concerned itself primarily with international trade construction of roads, harbors, and railways, and the distribution of public land in the West.

Due process: established legal procedures for the arrest and trial of an accused criminal

Earmark: a provision within legislation that appropriates money to a specific project, usually to benefit a small small number of individuals or a region.

Elastic clause: the section of the Constitution that allows Congress to pass laws “necessary and proper” to the performance of its duties. It is called the elastic clause because it allows Congress to stretch its powers beyond those that are specifically granted to it (enumerated) by the Constitution

Electoral College: constitution established body created for the sole purpose of choosing the president and vice president. During general elections, voters choose a presidential ticket. The winner in each state usually receives all of the state’s Electoral votes in the Electoral College. A majority of electoral votes is required for victory in the Electoral College; if such a majority cannot be reached, the election result is determined by the House of Representatives

Eminent domain: the power of the government to take away property for public use as long as there is just compensation for property taken.

ENtitlement programs: social insurance programs that allocate federal funds to all people who meet the conditions of the program. Social Security is the largest and most expensive entitlement program. BEcause they are a form of mandatory spending, it is incredibly difficult to cut funds to entitlement programs during the budgetary process

Equal Rights Amendment: failed constitutional amendment that would have guaranteed equal protection under the law for women (1970s)

Establishment clause: section of the Constitution that prohibits the government from designating one faith as the official religion of the US

Ex post facto laws: If allowed, these laws would punish people for actions that occurred before suh actions were made criminal

Exclusionary rule: rule that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial. The Supreme Court has created several exceptions to the exclusionary rule, notably the objective good faith rule and the inevitable discovery rule.

Executive agreements: Presidential agreements made with foreign nations. Executive agreements have the same legal force as treaties but do not require the approval of the Senate.

Executive privilege: the right of the president to withhold information when doing so would compromise national security (for example, in the case of diplomatic files and military secrets). Executive privilege is not mentioned in the Constitution. It is, rather, part of the unwritten Constitution.

Extradition: process by which governments return fugitives to the jurisdiction from which they have fled.

Federal Reserve Board: executive agency that is largely responsible for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy. By controlling the monetary supply, the Fed helps maintain a stable economy.

Federalism: Term describing a system under which the national government and local governments (state governments, in the case of the US) share powers.

The Federalist Papers: a series of essays written by James MAdison, Alexander hamilton, and John Jay to defend the COnstitution and persuade Americans that it should be ratified. These documents presented the concerns and issues the framers faced as they created a blueprint for the new government.

15th Amendment (1870): prohibited states from denying voting rights to African Americans. Southern states circumvent the 15th Amendment through literacy tests and poll taxes.

Filibuster: a lengthy speech that has all legislative action in the Senate. Filibusters are not possible in the House of Representatives because strict time limits govern all debates there.

1st Amendment: protects the right of individuals against the government by guaranteeing the freedom of speech/press/religion/assembly

Fiscal year: 12-month period starting on October 1. Government budgets go into effect at the beginning of the fiscal year. Congress and the president agree on a budget resolution in April to guide government spending for the coming fiscal year.

14th Amendment: prevented the states from denying “due process of law” and “equal protection under the law” to citizens. The amendment was specifically aimed at protecting the rights of newly freed slaves. In the 20th century, the Supreme Court used the amendment to strike down state laws that violate the Bill of Rights.

Freedom of Information Act (1974): Act that declassified government documents for public use

Front-loading: because early primaries have grown increasingly important in recent years, many states have pushed forward the date of their primary elections. Political analysts refer to this strategy is frontloading

Full faith and credit clause: Section of the Constitution that requires states to honor one another’s license marriages, and other acts of state courts

General election: Election held on the Tuesday after the first Monday of November, during which voters elect officials

Gerrymandering: the practice of drawing congressional district lines to benefit one party over the other

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that a defendant in a felony trial must be provided a lawyer free of charge if the defendant cannot afford one.

Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Bill (1985): Set budget reduction targets to balance budget but failed to eliminate loopholes

Great Compromise: Settlement reached at the Constitutional Convention between large states and small states. The Great Compromise called for two legislative houses; one in which states were represented by their populations (favoring large states) and one in which states receive equal representation (favoring small states)

Great Society: President Lyndon B. Johnson’s social/economic program, aimed at raising the standard of living for America’s poorest residents. Among the Great Society programs are Medicare, MEdicaid, Project HEad Start, Job Corps, and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA).

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Supreme COurt decision in which the court ruled that the Constitution explicitly guarantees citizens rights to privacy.

Hatch Act (1939): A congressional law that forbade government officials from participating in partisan politics and protected government employees from being fired on partisan grounds; it was revised in 1993 to be less restrictive.

House of Representatives: Lower house of the US Congress, in which representation is allocated to states in direct proportion to their population. The House of Representatives has sole power to initiate appropriations legislation

House Rules COmmittee: Determines the rules for debate of each bill, including whether the bill may be amended. This is the most powerful committee in the House. The Senate, which is smaller, has no rules for debate.

Impeachment: Process by which a president, judge, or other government official can be tried for high crimes or misdemeanors. Andrew Johnson was impeached but was found not guilty and was not removed from office.

Indictment A written statement of criminal charges brought against a defendant. Indictments guarantee that defendants know the charges against them so they can plan a defense.

Inevitable discovery: exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that the evidence would eventually have been found by legal means.

Initiative: Process through which voters may propose new laws. One of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters’ power over government

Interest group: Political group organized around a particular political goal or philosophy. Interest groups attempt to influence public policy through political action and donations to sympathetic candidates.

Iron Triangle: Also called subgovernment. Iron triangles are formed by the close working relationship among various interest groups, congressional committees, and executive agencies that enforce federal regulations. Working together, these groups can collectively exert a powerful influence over legislation and law enforcement.

Jim Crow laws: state and local laws passed in the post-Reconstruction Era South to enforce racial segregation and otherwise restrict the rights of African Americans

Joint Committee: Congressional committee composed of members of both houses of Congress, usually to investigate and research specific subjects

Judicial Activism: Term referring to the actions of a court that frequently strikes down or alters the acts of the executive and/or legislative branches

Judicial Restraint: term referring to the actions of a court that demonstrates an unwillingness to break with precedent or to overturn legislative and executive acts

Judicial Review: the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional

Ku Klux Klan: NAtivist hate group founded during the REconstruction Era. The Klan terrorizes black people throughout the south, especially those who attempted to assert their civil rights. The Clan also preaches hatred of Catholics and Jews

Legislative oversight: One of Congress’ most important tasks. In order to check the power of the executive branch, congressional committees investigate and evaluate the performance of corresponding executive agencies and departments.

Liberal: Descriptive of an ideology that tends to favor government spending on social programs, affirmative action, a woman’s right to an abortion, and an active government, and to disfavor defense spending and school prayer. Liberals are generally affiliated with the Democratic PArty.

Lilly LEdbetter Fair Pay Act (2009): Law that closed the loophole that limited suits on discriminatory pay

Limited Government: Principle of government that states that government powers must be confined to those allowed it by the nation’s Constitution

Line-item veto: Power held by some chief executives (such as governors) to excise some portions of a spending bill without rejecting the entire bill. The purpose of this power is to allow executives to eliminate frivolous appropriations. The president’s claim to the line-item veto was denied by the Supreme Court.

MAndate: level of support for an elected official as perceived through election results

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Supreme Court decision that established the principle of judicial review

MArshall, John: Third Chief of Justice of the Supreme Court (serving from 1800-1835). A Federalist who worked to increase the powers of the federal government over the states. MArshall established the principle of judicial review.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that, upon arrest, a suspect must be advised of the right to remain silent and the right to consult with a lawyer.

National convention: Occasion at which a political party officially announces its presidential nominee and reveals its party platform for the next four years. Today’s national convention are merely media events; nominees have already been determined by primary election results.

NAtional Organization for Women (NOW): FEminist political group formed in 1967 to promote legislative change. NOW lobbied for the failed Equal Rights AMendment to the Constitution.

National Security Council: Presidential advisory board established in 1947. The NSC consults with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.

19th Amendment (1920): granted voting rights to women

Nomination: Endorsement to run for office by a political party

Objective good faith: exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that police believed they were acting within the limits of their search warrant when they seized the evidence

Office of Management and Budget: Executive branch office responsible for drawing up the president’s proposals for the federal budget

Open primary: Primary election in which voters may vote in whichever party they choose, though they must select that party before entering the voting booth

Original jurisdiction: term used to describe a court’s power to initially try a case. Courts in which cases are first heard are those with original jurisdiction in the case. By contrast, appellate courts hear challenges to earlier court decisions.

Override: the COnstitutional power of Congress to supersede a president’s veto by ⅔ majority in both houses. Such a vote is difficult to achieve however, so overrides are fairly rare.

PArdon: cancellation of criminal punishment. Presidents and governors have the power to grant pardons to those awaiting trial and to those convicted of crimes.

Patriot Act (2001): Act passed in response to the terrorist attacks of SEptember 11, 2001, granting broad police authority to the federal, state, and local governments to interdict, prosecute, and convict suspected terrorists.

Platform: statement of purpose and policy objectives drafted and approved by political parties at their national conventions. Party platforms rarely exert much influence on day-to-day politics

Plessy v. Ferguson: Supreme Court ruling that “separate but equal” facilities for different races are not unconstitutional. This ruling opened the door to 75 years of state-sanctioned segregation in the South.

Pocket veto: If the president fails to approve a pill passed during the last ten days of a congressional session, the bill doesn't become law. This process is called a pocket veto.

Poison pill amendment: Amendment to a bill proposed by its opponents for the specific purpose of decreasing the bill’s chance of passage. Also known as a killer amendment.

Policy implementation: The process by which executive departments and agencies put legislation into practice. Agencies are often allowed a degree of freedom to interpret legislation as they write guidelines to enact and enforce the law

Political Action Committee (PAC): The fundraising apparatus of interest groups. Donations to and contributions from PACs are regulated by federal law, PACs contribute heavily to the reelection campaigns of representatives and senators sympathetic to the PAC’s political agenda.

Political party: Group of people with common political goals, which hopes to influence policy through the election process. Parties run candidates for office who represent the political agenda of party members. They therefore serve as an institutional link between the electorate and politicians.

Populists: Political party of the late 1800s. The Populists primarily represented farmers and working-class Americans. They sought inflationary economic policies to increase farm income. They also lobbied for a number of Democratic reforms that would later be adopted by the Progressives, such as the direct election of senators.

Pork barrel: budget items proposed by legislators to benefit constituents in their home state or district. Such expenditures are sometimes unnecessary but are passed anyway because they are politically beneficial.

President pro tempore: Individual chosen to preside over the Senate whenever the vice president is unavailable to do so. The president pro tempore is chosen by the senate from among its members.

Primary Elections: form of election held by the majority of states, during which voters select the nominees for political parties. Winners of primary elections appear on the ballot during the general election

Prior restraint: censorship of news material before it is made public,

Privileges and immunities clause: section of the Constitution stating that a state may not refuse police protection or access to its courts to US citizens because they live in a different state

Progressive income tax: a progressive tax increases tax rates for people with higher incomes. Those citizens at the poverty level, for example, may py few or no taxes. Middle-class citizens ,ay be taxed a a 15% ratem while the wealthy are taxed at two or three times that rate. The goal of a progressive tax is to allow those with greater need to keep more of what they earn while taking more from those who can best afford it

Quorum: the minimum number of people required for the legislature to act

Realignment: Occurs when a party undergoes a major shift in its electoral base and political agenda. The groups of people composing the party coalition may split up, resulting in a vastly different party. Realignments are rare and tend to be signaled by a critical election. The last realignment occurred during the New Deal, when many working-class and ethnic groups joined togethers under the Democratic Party

Recall election: process through which voters can shorten an office holder’s term. One of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters’ power over government

Redistricting: process by which congressional districts are redrawn to reflect population changes reported by census data. Each district must have an equal number of residents. Redistricting typically occurs with reapportionment, a process in which seats are redistributed in the House. States may lose or gain sats during reapportionment, but the total House membership remains 435.

Referendum: process through which voters may vote on new laws. One of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters’ power over government.

Regulatory agency: executive agency responsible for enforcing laws pertaining to a certain industry. The agency writes guidelines for the industry, such as safety codes, and enforces them through methods such as inspection.

Representative democracy: form of government under which citizens vote for delegates who in turn represent citizens’ interests within the government. In contrast, a direct democracy requires all citizens to vote on all government issues. The US is a representative democracy.

Reserved powers: constitutional powers that belong solely to the states. According the the 10th Amendment, these powers include any that the Constitution does not either specifically grant the national government or deny the state governments.

Roe v. Wade (1973): Supreme Court case that decriminalized abortion

Runoff primary: election held between top two vote-getters in a primary election, when neither received a legally required minimum percentage of the vote. Many states require a runoff when no candidate receives at the 40% of the primary vote for his or her party

Sampling error: margin of error in public opinion poll. Most polls are accurate within a margin of +4%

Saving amendment: Amendment to a bill proposed in hopes of softening opposition by weakening objectionable elements of the bill

Schenck v. United States: Supreme Court case involving limits on free speech rights. The Schenck case established the “clear and present danger” principle in determining what type of speech could be restricted

Search warrant: Document issued by the courts to allow the police to search private property. To obtain a warrant, the police to search private property. To obtain a arrant, the police must go before a judge and explain (1) where they want to search and (2) what they are looking for. A search warrant also limits where the police may search and what they may take as evidence (4th Amendment).

Select committee: Temporary committee of Congress, usually created to investigate specific issues

Selective incorporation: process by which the Supreme Court has selectively applied the 14th Amendment to state law.

Senate: Upper house of Congress, in which each state has two representatives. The Senate has the sole power to approve cabinet, ambassadorial, and federal judicial appointments. International treaties must receive ⅔ approval from the Senate.

Senatorial courtesy: A tradition whereby candidates for the federal bureaucracy are appointed by the president and selected from a list of nominees submitted by senators.

Separation of powers: the system that prevents any branch of government from becoming too powerful by dividing important tasks among three branches. Also called the system of checks and balances.

Shield law: law guaranteeing news reporter the right to protect the anonymity of their sources. MAny states have passed shield laws, but there is no federal shield law.

16th Amendment: authorized Congress to impose and collect federal income taxes

Soft money: political donations made to parties for the purpose of general party maintenance and support, such as get-out-the-vote campaigns, issue advocacy, and advertisements that promote the party (but not individual candidates). Soft money contributions to political parties were banned in 2002 by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) (also known as the McCain-Feingold Bill).

Speaker of the House: Individual chosen by members of the House of Representatives to preside over its sessions

Split-ticket voting:choosing candidates from different parties for offices listed on the same ballot. Voters have been more inclined to vote a split ticket in recent decades. This trend has led to divided government.

Spoils system: the political practice of trading government jobs and preferences for political and financial support. President Andrew Jackson was the first to be widely accused of using the spoils system to reward political friends and supporters.

Standing committee: a permanent congressional committee

Strict constructionism: belief that the COnstitution should be read in such a way as to limit the powers of the federal government as much as possible. Strict constructionists emphasize the importance of the 10th Amendment, which reserves to the states all powers not explicitly granted to the federal government

Super PAC: a type of political action committee that does not have donation limits, but cannot donate directly to a specific candidate

Supremacy clause: section of the Constitution that requires conflicts between federal and state laws to be resolved in favor of federal law. State constitutions and laws that violate the US constitution, federal laws, or international treaties can be invalidated through the supremacy clause

Supreme Court: Highest court in the US. The only federal court specifically mentioned in the US Constitution

13th Amendment (1865): abolished slavery

⅗ Compromise: agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention between Southern and Northern states. The South wanted slaves counted amoth the population for voting purposes but not for tax purposes; the North wanted the exact opposite. Both sides agreed that ⅗ of a state’s slave population would be counted toward both congressional appointment and taxation

24th Amendment (1964): outlawed poll taxes, which had been used to prevent the poor from voting

22nd Amendment (1951): limited the number of ears an individual may serve as president. According to the 22nd Amendment, president may be elected no more than twice.

26th Amendment (1971): lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

Unanimous consent decree: agreement passed by the Senate that establishes the rules under which a bill will be debated, amended, and voted upon

United Nations: International organization established following WWII. The United Nations aims to preserve international peace and foster international cooperation

Unwritten constitution: certain deeply ingrained aspects of our government that are not mentioned in the Constitution, such as political parties, political conventions, and cabinet meetings

Veto: the power held by chief executives (such as the president or governors) to reject acts of the legislature. A presidential veto can be overridden by a ⅔ majority vote of both houses of Congress

Voting Rights Act of 1965: federal law that increased government supervision of local election practices, suspended the use of literacy tests to prevent people (usually black people) from voting, and expanded government efforts to register voters. The Voting Rights Act of 1970 permanently banned literacy tests.

War on Poverty:Those programs of President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society that were specifically aimed at assisting the poor. Among these programs was Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), Medicaid, and the creation of the Office of Economic Opportunity

War Powers Act: LAw requiring the president to seek periodic approval from Congress for any substantial troop commitment. Passed in 1973 in response to national dissatisfaction over the Vietnam War.

Warren Court (1953-1969): the Supreme Court during the era in which Earl Warren served as Chief Justice. The Warren Court is best remembered for expanding the rights of minorities and the rights of the accused

Watergate: the name of the hotel in which spies working for President Richard Nixon’s 1972 re election campaign were caught breaking into Democratic National HEadquarters. The name Watergate soon became synonymous with a number of illegal activities undertaken by the Nixon White House. The resulting scandal forced Nixon to resign the presidency in 1974.

Writ of certiorari: a legal document issued by the Supreme Court to request the court transcripts of a case. A writ of certiorari indicates that the court will review a lower court’s decision.

WRit of habeas corpus: a court order requiring an explanation as to why a prisoner is being held in custody.