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ap_chemistry [2024/04/09 01:53] – mrdoughap_chemistry [2024/04/30 00:07] (current) – mrdough
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 ●**Trust in your preparation and knowledge!** AP Chemistry is a difficult class, but you have worked hard the entire year. Show what you know and how hard you have worked on the exam. ●**Trust in your preparation and knowledge!** AP Chemistry is a difficult class, but you have worked hard the entire year. Show what you know and how hard you have worked on the exam.
  
-**Unit 1 - Atomic Structures and Properties** **Photoelectron Spectroscopy** +======Unit 1 - Atomic Structures and Properties Photoelectron Spectroscopy======
- +
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image2.png}}+
  
 +{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image2.png}}
 ●Each peak is a subshell ●Each peak is a subshell
  
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 Cations are smaller than neutral atom, and anions are larger than neutral atom because additional electrons mean more repulsive for Cations are smaller than neutral atom, and anions are larger than neutral atom because additional electrons mean more repulsive for
  
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 Here’s the reason why these trends happen: Here’s the reason why these trends happen:
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 **Aufbau Principle:** electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals (not levels) first. **Aufbau Principle:** electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals (not levels) first.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image4.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image4.png}}
  
 Use this diagram to know which orbitals to fill first. Start from 1s, 2s, then 2p, and so on. Use this diagram to know which orbitals to fill first. Start from 1s, 2s, then 2p, and so on.
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 With this principle, it helps us to write out **an electron configuration**: For example, Oxygen’s configuration would be 1s2 2s2 2p4 With this principle, it helps us to write out **an electron configuration**: For example, Oxygen’s configuration would be 1s2 2s2 2p4
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image5.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image5.png}}
  
 This diagram tells us that 2 electrons can be filled in the s orbitals, 6 electrons in the p orbitals, 10 electrons in the d orbitals, and 14 electrons in the f orbitals. This diagram tells us that 2 electrons can be filled in the s orbitals, 6 electrons in the p orbitals, 10 electrons in the d orbitals, and 14 electrons in the f orbitals.
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 For example, an ion electron configuration for Mg2+ would be [Ne] 3s1 For example, an ion electron configuration for Mg2+ would be [Ne] 3s1
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image6.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image6.png}}
  
 Let’s do another example: Ion electron configuration for Ag: [Kr]4d105s1. The 5s orbital lost an electron because it’s a more outer sublevel that 4d. Let’s do another example: Ion electron configuration for Ag: [Kr]4d105s1. The 5s orbital lost an electron because it’s a more outer sublevel that 4d.
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 **Pauli Exclusion Principle** states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four of their quantum numbers. **Pauli Exclusion Principle** states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four of their quantum numbers.
  
-**Unit 2 - Molecular and Ionic Compound Structures and** +======Unit 2 - Molecular and Ionic Compound Structures and Properties======
- +
-**Properties** +
 **Coulomb’s law** - Ions have stronger attractive force if they have larger charge and smaller ionic radius(smaller distance between ions) **Coulomb’s law** - Ions have stronger attractive force if they have larger charge and smaller ionic radius(smaller distance between ions)
  
 ●**Bond energy** - smaller bonds require more energy to break(double bonds have more bond energy than single bonds) ●**Bond energy** - smaller bonds require more energy to break(double bonds have more bond energy than single bonds)
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image7.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image7.png}}
  
 ●**Lattice energy** - energy released when ions form a crystalline solid, smaller ions with higher charge have more lattice energy ●**Lattice energy** - energy released when ions form a crystalline solid, smaller ions with higher charge have more lattice energy
  
-**Ionic bonding** - metal and nonmetal, conducts electricity as liquid/aqueous+**Ionic bonding** - metal and nonmetal, conducts electricity as liquid:aqueous
  
-**Covalent bonding** - nonmetal and nonmetal, conducts electricity as liquid/aqueous+**Covalent bonding** - nonmetal and nonmetal, conducts electricity as liquid:aqueous
  
-**Metallic bonding** - sea of electrons move freely throughout a metal, conducts electricity as liquid/aqueous/solid+**Metallic bonding** - sea of electrons move freely throughout a metal, conducts electricity as liquid:aqueous:solid
  
 **Substitutional alloy** - the atoms of both metals are roughly the same size **Substitutional alloy** - the atoms of both metals are roughly the same size
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 ●**Boron** and **Beryllium** form an incomplete octet. Boron can only have 6 electrons, and Beryllium can only have 4 electrons. ●**Boron** and **Beryllium** form an incomplete octet. Boron can only have 6 electrons, and Beryllium can only have 4 electrons.
  
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 ●There are also elements that exceed the octet rule. Atoms that exceed row 3 or above, can form an expanded octet. For example, Sulfur, Phosphorous, Arsenic can all form an expanded octet. ●There are also elements that exceed the octet rule. Atoms that exceed row 3 or above, can form an expanded octet. For example, Sulfur, Phosphorous, Arsenic can all form an expanded octet.
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 When drawing a Lewis structure, we only consider the valence electrons. Electrons in a bonding domain or in a nonbonding domain normally exist in pairs. Electron domains tend to repel each other in a way that is as far apart from each other in 3-D space as possible. When drawing a Lewis structure, we only consider the valence electrons. Electrons in a bonding domain or in a nonbonding domain normally exist in pairs. Electron domains tend to repel each other in a way that is as far apart from each other in 3-D space as possible.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image9.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image9.png}}
  
 An electron domain is a bond, but you don't count double or triple bonds as extra domains. Lone pairs on the central atom impact the shape. An electron domain is a bond, but you don't count double or triple bonds as extra domains. Lone pairs on the central atom impact the shape.
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 **Sigma and pi bonding** - each single bond is a sigma bond, any other bonds are pi bonds(triple bond has a sigma and two pi bonds) **Sigma and pi bonding** - each single bond is a sigma bond, any other bonds are pi bonds(triple bond has a sigma and two pi bonds)
  
-**Unit 3 - Intermolecular Forces and Properties**+======Unit 3 - Intermolecular Forces and Properties======
  
 **Nonpolar molecule** - bond dipoles cancel out due to symmetry **Nonpolar molecule** - bond dipoles cancel out due to symmetry
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image10.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image10.png}}
  
 General ranking of IMF strength from weakest to strongest: LDF, dipole-dipole, hydrogen-bonding, ion-dipole, ionic bonding (**look at chart**) General ranking of IMF strength from weakest to strongest: LDF, dipole-dipole, hydrogen-bonding, ion-dipole, ionic bonding (**look at chart**)
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 **Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy.** **Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy.**
  
-**Covalent network solids** - strong covalent bonds in a 3D network often with carbon and/or silicon i.e. diamond, SiO2+**Covalent network solids** - strong covalent bonds in a 3D network often with carbon and:or silicon i.e. diamond, SiO2
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image12.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image12.png}}
  
 Use ratio reasoning to determine relationship between gas law variables - if two variables are on the same side of the equation, raising one will decrease the other, if they are on opposite sides, raising one will raise the other Use ratio reasoning to determine relationship between gas law variables - if two variables are on the same side of the equation, raising one will decrease the other, if they are on opposite sides, raising one will raise the other
  
-**KMT** - Gas molecules move in straight lines unless they collide(causing pressure), average kinetic energy = temperature, gas molecules have no volume and exert no attractive/repulsive forces(do not lose energy during collisions)+**KMT** - Gas molecules move in straight lines unless they collide(causing pressure), average kinetic energy = temperature, gas molecules have no volume and exert no attractive:repulsive forces(do not lose energy during collisions)
  
-●Deviations: gases do have volume and exert attractive/repulsive forces at high pressure, low temperature, and low volume+●Deviations: gases do have volume and exert attractive:repulsive forces at high pressure, low temperature, and low volume
  
 **Phase Diagram** is a convenient way of representing phases of substance as a function of temperature and pressure. **Phase Diagram** is a convenient way of representing phases of substance as a function of temperature and pressure.
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 **Combined Gas Law:** **Combined Gas Law:**
  
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-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image14.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image14.png}}
  
 If we combine all these laws, we get the **Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT** %%**%%R= gas constant=0.08206 atm mol-1 K-1 If we combine all these laws, we get the **Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT** %%**%%R= gas constant=0.08206 atm mol-1 K-1
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image13.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image13.png}}
  
 **STP** is standard pressure at 1 atm and standard temperature of 273 K. Also, under STP, 1 mol equals to 22.4 L. **STP** is standard pressure at 1 atm and standard temperature of 273 K. Also, under STP, 1 mol equals to 22.4 L.
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 **“Like dissolve like”** **“Like dissolve like”**
  
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 **Root Mean Square Velocity** **Root Mean Square Velocity**
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 ===  === ===  ===
  
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R=8.3145J/K*mol.\\ \\ Final Unit is in m/s                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |[[AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/Untitled%20Database%20fb83012791a643b88942338baf2806e2/Untitled%20be0b630e0f2f46049b94a98d26376bee/image15.png|{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/Untitled%20Database%20fb83012791a643b88942338baf2806e2/Untitled%20be0b630e0f2f46049b94a98d26376bee/image15.png|/tmp/pdf2docx/011ac350-fd86-4115-b706-881a82ec636b/media/image15.png}}]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |+|[[https:::www.notion.so:be0b630e0f2f46049b94a98d26376bee?pvs=21|Untitled]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |::M:: is the molar mass of gas in kg:mol. R=8.3145J:K*mol.\\ \\ Final Unit is in m:s                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |[[AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:Untitled_Database_fb83012791a643b88942338baf2806e2:Untitled_be0b630e0f2f46049b94a98d26376bee:image15.png|{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:Untitled_Database_fb83012791a643b88942338baf2806e2:Untitled_be0b630e0f2f46049b94a98d26376bee:image15.png|:tmp:pdf2docx:011ac350-fd86-4115-b706-881a82ec636b:media:image15.png}}]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
  
 \\ \\
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 **Graham’s Law of Effusion:** **Graham’s Law of Effusion:**
  
-//R// represents the rate of effusion for each gasses.+::R:: represents the rate of effusion for each gasses.
  
 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑦 𝑅 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑦 𝑅 𝑓 =
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 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image16.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image16.png}}
  
 Beer’s law for **colored solutions** - A=abc, absorption of light by a solution=(a constant unique to given molecule)(path length)(concentration of solution) Beer’s law for **colored solutions** - A=abc, absorption of light by a solution=(a constant unique to given molecule)(path length)(concentration of solution)
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 ●To predict possible experimental error, decide how the error affects the equation and use ratio reasoning, i.e. if water is left in a cuvette, concentration of the solution would be less, so absorbance would be less ●To predict possible experimental error, decide how the error affects the equation and use ratio reasoning, i.e. if water is left in a cuvette, concentration of the solution would be less, so absorbance would be less
  
-**Unit 4 - Chemical Reactions**+======Unit 4 - Chemical Reactions======
  
 How to write Net ionic equations: How to write Net ionic equations:
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 Here’s an example: Here’s an example:
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image18.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image18.png}}
  
-**Titration** - experiment to calculate moles/concentration of a chemical+**Titration** - experiment to calculate moles:concentration of a chemical
  
 ●Titrant is slowly dripped to the analyte until exactly enough titrant is added to react with all of the analyte(equivalence point) ●𝑀1𝑉1 = 𝑀2𝑉2 if acid and base are in a 1-to-1 mole ratio ●Titrant is slowly dripped to the analyte until exactly enough titrant is added to react with all of the analyte(equivalence point) ●𝑀1𝑉1 = 𝑀2𝑉2 if acid and base are in a 1-to-1 mole ratio
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 confirm oxidation-reduction reactions. confirm oxidation-reduction reactions.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image19.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image19.png}}
  
 ○Single elements have an oxidation number of 0 ○Single elements have an oxidation number of 0
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 ○Multiply reactions so the number of electrons matches and combine half reactions **Precipitation reactions** - two ionic compounds combine to form a solid in an aqueous solution ○Multiply reactions so the number of electrons matches and combine half reactions **Precipitation reactions** - two ionic compounds combine to form a solid in an aqueous solution
- +======Unit 5 - Kinetics======
-**Unit 5 - Kinetics**+
  
 Concentration of reactants, presence of catalysts, temperature, pressure and surface area affect reaction rate by changing the rate of collisions. Concentration of reactants, presence of catalysts, temperature, pressure and surface area affect reaction rate by changing the rate of collisions.
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 Rate laws - 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1]𝑚[𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2]𝑛. .., m and n must be determined by experimental data, overall order=m+n…, rate constant=k, Rate laws - 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1]𝑚[𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2]𝑛. .., m and n must be determined by experimental data, overall order=m+n…, rate constant=k,
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image21.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image21.png}}
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image20.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image20.png}}
  
 To solve for order, find two trials in which one reactant’s concentration remains constant and determine the ratio between the other reactant’s concentration and rate(1:2 = 2nd order). See relative rate vs. concentration below. To solve for order, find two trials in which one reactant’s concentration remains constant and determine the ratio between the other reactant’s concentration and rate(1:2 = 2nd order). See relative rate vs. concentration below.
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 **Pay attention to the units of the rate constant! Use overall order to determine the units as shown below!** **Pay attention to the units of the rate constant! Use overall order to determine the units as shown below!**
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image22.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image22.png}}
  
 In a reaction with many steps, the **slowest step(given) determines the rate law**. **Rate laws cannot have an intermediate species**, so you must use other steps to rewrite intermediates. In a reaction with many steps, the **slowest step(given) determines the rate law**. **Rate laws cannot have an intermediate species**, so you must use other steps to rewrite intermediates.
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 Successful collisions have the right amount of energy and the correct orientation that allows the bonds to rearrange in the required manner. Successful collisions have the right amount of energy and the correct orientation that allows the bonds to rearrange in the required manner.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image23.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image23.png}}
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image24.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image24.png}}
  
 Other factors that affect reaction rate: **reactant concentration, pressure, temperature, surface area,** and **catalyst.** Here’s a chart that explains and summarizes these factors: Other factors that affect reaction rate: **reactant concentration, pressure, temperature, surface area,** and **catalyst.** Here’s a chart that explains and summarizes these factors:
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 Catalysts provide a reaction mechanism with lower activation energy, so it has a shorter hump and reaches the potential energy of products faster. Catalysts provide a reaction mechanism with lower activation energy, so it has a shorter hump and reaches the potential energy of products faster.
  
-**Unit 6 - Thermodynamics**+======Unit 6 - Thermodynamics======
  
 **Potential Energy** - energy associated with position **Potential Energy** - energy associated with position
  
-**Kinetic Energy** - energy associated with motion, KE=1/2mv²+**Kinetic Energy** - energy associated with motion, KE=1:2mv²
  
 **Thermal Energy** - energy associated with temperature with relation to mass **System** - reactants and products **Thermal Energy** - energy associated with temperature with relation to mass **System** - reactants and products
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 Ways to find ΔH: Ways to find ΔH:
  
-1.q=mcΔT, ΔH=q/n, n=moles of limiting reactant+1.q=mcΔT, ΔH=q:n, n=moles of limiting reactant
  
 2.Use a table to calculate bond enthalpies. Draw the lewis dot diagrams for each molecule and count the number of each type of bond. Add each bond enthalpy together for reactants and products. Subtract sum of bond enthalpies in products form the sum of bond enthalpies in reactants. 2.Use a table to calculate bond enthalpies. Draw the lewis dot diagrams for each molecule and count the number of each type of bond. Add each bond enthalpy together for reactants and products. Subtract sum of bond enthalpies in products form the sum of bond enthalpies in reactants.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image25.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image25.png}}
  
 3.Use a table of standard enthalpy of formation Δ𝐻𝑓. Subtract the sum of enthalpies of each reactant molecule from the sum of enthalpies of each product molecule. 3.Use a table of standard enthalpy of formation Δ𝐻𝑓. Subtract the sum of enthalpies of each reactant molecule from the sum of enthalpies of each product molecule.
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 w=-PΔV w=-PΔV
  
-**Unit 7 - Equilibrium**+======Unit 7 - Equilibrium======
  
 At **equilibrium**, concentration of reactants and products remain constant. The concentrations do not have to be in equal amounts. The forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, so there is no observable change in concentration. At **equilibrium**, concentration of reactants and products remain constant. The concentrations do not have to be in equal amounts. The forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates, so there is no observable change in concentration.
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 Similar to Hess’s Law, you can manipulate reactions to get an ideal reaction and get a new K. ●If you add two equations, multiply each K. Similar to Hess’s Law, you can manipulate reactions to get an ideal reaction and get a new K. ●If you add two equations, multiply each K.
  
-●If you flip an equation, invert K(1/K)+●If you flip an equation, invert K(1:K)
  
 ●If you multiply an equation by a coefficient, raise K to the power of the coefficient. ●If you multiply an equation by a coefficient, raise K to the power of the coefficient.
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 A precipitate will form in a reaction is Q>𝐾𝑠𝑝. Calculate the concentrations of each ion and plug them into a Q expression to see if Q is larger than the given K. A precipitate will form in a reaction is Q>𝐾𝑠𝑝. Calculate the concentrations of each ion and plug them into a Q expression to see if Q is larger than the given K.
  
-**Unit 8 - Acids and Bases**+======Unit 8 - Acids and Bases======
  
 **Amphoteric** - can act as acid or base i.e. water **Amphoteric** - can act as acid or base i.e. water
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 Acid strength for binary acids increases as you go across a period(greater electronegativity) and down a group(greater bond strength). Acid strength for oxyacids increases as you go up a group(more electronegativity). The more oxygens an oxyacid has, the stronger the acid is. Acid strength for binary acids increases as you go across a period(greater electronegativity) and down a group(greater bond strength). Acid strength for oxyacids increases as you go up a group(more electronegativity). The more oxygens an oxyacid has, the stronger the acid is.
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image26.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image26.png}}
  
 pH can be greater than 14 or less than 0. pH can be greater than 14 or less than 0.
  
-**See these Quizlets to learn more(in no particular order):** 
- 
-● ● 
- 
-● 
  
-**Unit 9 - Applications of Thermodynamics**+======Unit 9 - Applications of Thermodynamics======
  
 **Entropy** ⊗**S**: A driving force for a spontaneous process is an increase in the entropy of the universe. Entropy represents the disorder of a reaction. **Entropy** ⊗**S**: A driving force for a spontaneous process is an increase in the entropy of the universe. Entropy represents the disorder of a reaction.
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 Here’s a chart with relationship between enthalpy, entropy, and free energy: Here’s a chart with relationship between enthalpy, entropy, and free energy:
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image27.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image27.png}}
  
 There’s also a relationship between Gibbs free energy and K. There’s also a relationship between Gibbs free energy and K.
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 |⊗Gº > 0|K < 1| |⊗Gº > 0|K < 1|
  
-**Galvanic/Voltaic Cell**+**Galvanic:Voltaic Cell**
  
-{{AP%20Chem%20Study%20Guide%20f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968/image28.png}}+{{AP_Chem_Study_Guide_f1860aefc7694aeeaeba53de03d04968:image28.png}}
  
 Because Cu is the positive cathode, electrons are attracted and will flow toward Cu. These electrons come from the oxidation of Zn, which results in Zn2+ in solution. These electrons combine with Cu2+ in solution to form Cu(reduction), increasing the mass of the Cu cathode. The salt bridge keeps the charge in the cell neutral(K+ ion from KCl replaces Cu2+ in solution, and Cl- balances Zn2+ in solution) Because Cu is the positive cathode, electrons are attracted and will flow toward Cu. These electrons come from the oxidation of Zn, which results in Zn2+ in solution. These electrons combine with Cu2+ in solution to form Cu(reduction), increasing the mass of the Cu cathode. The salt bridge keeps the charge in the cell neutral(K+ ion from KCl replaces Cu2+ in solution, and Cl- balances Zn2+ in solution)
  
-**Standard cell notation/line notation** template(see image for example without concentrations) - anode|anode solution(concentration)||cathode solution(concentration)|cathode+**Standard cell notation:line notation** template(see image for example without concentrations) - anode|anode solution(concentration)||cathode solution(concentration)|cathode
  
 Helpful mnemonic devices Helpful mnemonic devices
Line 604: Line 594:
 **Cell voltage** - E° of cathode - E° of anode **Cell voltage** - E° of cathode - E° of anode
  
-ΔG°=-nFE°, n=moles of electrons in balanced equation, F=96485 Coulombs/mole electron, 𝑅𝑇+ΔG°=-nFE°, n=moles of electrons in balanced equation, F=96485 Coulombs:mole electron, 𝑅𝑇
  
 **Nernst Equation:** Ecell = Eºcell - 𝑛𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑄 **Nernst Equation:** Ecell = Eºcell - 𝑛𝐹𝑙𝑛𝑄
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 **See these Quizlets to learn more(in no particular order):** **See these Quizlets to learn more(in no particular order):**
  
-● https://quizlet.com/498668211/ap-chemistry-unit-9-flash-cards/\\+● https:::quizlet.com:498668211:ap-chemistry-unit-9-flash-cards:\\
 ●\\ ●\\
-https://quizlet.com/485345033/ap-chemistry-unit-9-applications-of-thermodynamicselectrochemistry-flash-cards/\\+https:::quizlet.com:485345033:ap-chemistry-unit-9-applications-of-thermodynamicselectrochemistry-flash-cards:\\
 ●\\ ●\\
-https://quizlet.com/424160249/ap-chemistry-unit-9-flash-cards/+https:::quizlet.com:424160249:ap-chemistry-unit-9-flash-cards:
  
 **Image Sources** **Image Sources**
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 ● - retyped image into a table to correct an error in “increase temperature” row and add information ● ● - retyped image into a table to correct an error in “increase temperature” row and add information ●
  
-●https:%%//%%www.chemicool.com/definition/aufbau-principle.html+●https:%%::%%www.chemicool.com:definition:aufbau-principle.html
  
-●https:%%//%%www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/e_config.html+●https:%%::%%www.chem.fsu.edu:chemlab:chm1045:e_config.html
  
-●https:%%//%%ch301.cm.utexas.edu/section2.php?target=atomic/e-config/hunds-rule.html ●https:%%//%%www.liberaldictionary.com/pauli-exclusion-principle/+●https:%%::%%ch301.cm.utexas.edu:section2.php?target=atomic:e-config:hunds-rule.html ●https:%%::%%www.liberaldictionary.com:pauli-exclusion-principle:
  
-●https:%%//%%study.com/academy/lesson/bond-enthalpy-definition-calculations-values.html ●https:%%//%%studylib.net/doc/5639925/formal-charge+●https:%%::%%study.com:academy:lesson:bond-enthalpy-definition-calculations-values.html ●https:%%::%%studylib.net:doc:5639925:formal-charge
  
-●https:%%//%%socratic.org/questions/how-would-you-draw-all-the-resonance-structures-for- nitrate-no3+●https:%%::%%socratic.org:questions:how-would-you-draw-all-the-resonance-structures-for- nitrate-no3
  
-●https:%%//%%en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagram+●https:%%::%%en.wikipedia.org:wiki:Phase_diagram
  
-●https:%%//%%www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/gas_laws.html+●https:%%::%%www.chem.fsu.edu:chemlab:chm1045:gas_laws.html
  
-●https:%%//%%www.thinglink.com/scene/508702545376444417+●https:%%::%%www.thinglink.com:scene:508702545376444417
  
-●https:%%//%%dvhsgaslaws.weebly.com/root-mean-square-velocity.html+●https:%%::%%dvhsgaslaws.weebly.com:root-mean-square-velocity.html
  
-●https:%%//%%calistry.org/calculate/grahamLaw+●https:%%::%%calistry.org:calculate:grahamLaw
  
-●https:%%//%%study.com/academy/answer/write-the-net-ionic-equation-for-the-reaction- between-sulfuric-acid-and-potassium-hydroxide.html+●https:%%::%%study.com:academy:answer:write-the-net-ionic-equation-for-the-reaction- between-sulfuric-acid-and-potassium-hydroxide.html
  
-●https:%%//%%i1.wp.com/www.compoundchem.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Factors-+●https:%%::%%i1.wp.com:www.compoundchem.com:wp-content:uploads:2016:02:Factors-
  
 Affecting-Rate-of-Reaction.png?ssl=1 Affecting-Rate-of-Reaction.png?ssl=1
  
-●https:%%//%%courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-introductory-chemistry/chapter/spontaneity-free- energy-and-temperature/+●https:%%::%%courses.lumenlearning.com:suny-introductory-chemistry:chapter:spontaneity-free- energy-and-temperature:
  
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