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 ====== Complete AP Biology Study Guide ====== ====== Complete AP Biology Study Guide ======
   * Credit: Weshe2005 on reddit,   * Credit: Weshe2005 on reddit,
-  * If u think u can clean of the formatting please do so. Refer to [[wiki:syntax|Syntax]] to learn about how to formatting, though if u click edit u can get familiar with pre-existing formatting.+  * If u think u can clean of the formatting please do so. Refer to wiki:syntax|Syntax to learn about how to formatting, though if u click edit u can get familiar with pre-existing formatting.
  
 Useful Links: Useful Links:
-Cliff Notes: [[https://kamsc.github.io/assets/links/Cliff_AP_Biology.pdf]]+Cliff Notes: https://kamsc.github.io/assets/links/Cliff_AP_Biology.pdf
  
 Practice Resources Practice Resources
-  * 2013: [[https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-biology-practice-exam-2013.pdf?course=ap-biology|2013 Practice Exam]] +  * 2013: https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/ap-biology-practice-exam-2013.pdf?course=ap-biology|2013 Practice Exam 
-  * 2012: [[https://web.archive.org/web/20170430191045/https://d3jc3ahdjad7x7.cloudfront.net/SJI5NL7tiTFTL7XcjKnSB4Db6Q8fzIU1qfRT4Y0Z83pajwL6.pdf|2012 Practice Exam]]+  * 2012: https://web.archive.org/web/20170430191045/https://d3jc3ahdjad7x7.cloudfront.net/SJI5NL7tiTFTL7XcjKnSB4Db6Q8fzIU1qfRT4Y0Z83pajwL6.pdf|2012 Practice Exam
 Past FRQs:  Past FRQs: 
-  * [[https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-biology/exam/past-exam-questions?course=ap-biology|College Board Past Exam Questions Page]] +  * https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-biology/exam/past-exam-questions?course=ap-biology|College Board Past Exam Questions Page 
-  * FRQ 2020: [[https://youtu.be/fcMniGj9Wmc]]+  * FRQ 2020: https://youtu.be/fcMniGj9Wmc
   * FRQ: 2021: https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/apc/ap21-frq-biology.pdf   * FRQ: 2021: https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/apc/ap21-frq-biology.pdf
 =====Unit 1: Properties Water, Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis; Carbs and Lipids===== =====Unit 1: Properties Water, Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis; Carbs and Lipids=====
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     * Important during development, where it helps cells take on and reinforce their correct identity and shape (ie. cancer, and its role in metastasis)     * Important during development, where it helps cells take on and reinforce their correct identity and shape (ie. cancer, and its role in metastasis)
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0f2dS70bFeBdHymbWBe8AdyWHDqq3MOk9N_khWVLMnYXxdUWDm3A_7JG1ahLARfX-Qmp23t-eMlktQCSggVhaJN7eBQ-dn1qE4jItRJbWwtE-lz61EOcs6iFl6iTL6-fIALnKltW4taJoGMTNbCC6w|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0f2dS70bFeBdHymbWBe8AdyWHDqq3MOk9N_khWVLMnYXxdUWDm3A_7JG1ahLARfX-Qmp23t-eMlktQCSggVhaJN7eBQ-dn1qE4jItRJbWwtE-lz61EOcs6iFl6iTL6-fIALnKltW4taJoGMTNbCC6w|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0f2dS70bFeBdHymbWBe8AdyWHDqq3MOk9N_khWVLMnYXxdUWDm3A_7JG1ahLARfX-Qmp23t-eMlktQCSggVhaJN7eBQ-dn1qE4jItRJbWwtE-lz61EOcs6iFl6iTL6-fIALnKltW4taJoGMTNbCC6w" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0f2dS70bFeBdHymbWBe8AdyWHDqq3MOk9N_khWVLMnYXxdUWDm3A_7JG1ahLARfX-Qmp23t-eMlktQCSggVhaJN7eBQ-dn1qE4jItRJbWwtE-lz61EOcs6iFl6iTL6-fIALnKltW4taJoGMTNbCC6w" alt="">
-</html>]]ENDOCRINE SIGNALING+</html>ENDOCRINE SIGNALING
  
   * When cells need to transmit signals over long distances, release hormones into the bloodstream to reach distant target cells   * When cells need to transmit signals over long distances, release hormones into the bloodstream to reach distant target cells
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     * One hormone can lead to many 2ndry messengers and effects cuz can bind to receptors inside many cells     * One hormone can lead to many 2ndry messengers and effects cuz can bind to receptors inside many cells
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/uaA6qgAE4HAnsBr0_v8_dipiM1ju0cgrZPG9_hZU9pguZl15muYhD00t0MJnF7IUvn-tzrW0xc0Ft7rZ-0L3GOZEIaSHcCx2e6Jtml2O15QqkXyURgky7H5XA46EkYf3lSMdxYwJ3PFXVRSOUqTjjQ|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/uaA6qgAE4HAnsBr0_v8_dipiM1ju0cgrZPG9_hZU9pguZl15muYhD00t0MJnF7IUvn-tzrW0xc0Ft7rZ-0L3GOZEIaSHcCx2e6Jtml2O15QqkXyURgky7H5XA46EkYf3lSMdxYwJ3PFXVRSOUqTjjQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/uaA6qgAE4HAnsBr0_v8_dipiM1ju0cgrZPG9_hZU9pguZl15muYhD00t0MJnF7IUvn-tzrW0xc0Ft7rZ-0L3GOZEIaSHcCx2e6Jtml2O15QqkXyURgky7H5XA46EkYf3lSMdxYwJ3PFXVRSOUqTjjQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/uaA6qgAE4HAnsBr0_v8_dipiM1ju0cgrZPG9_hZU9pguZl15muYhD00t0MJnF7IUvn-tzrW0xc0Ft7rZ-0L3GOZEIaSHcCx2e6Jtml2O15QqkXyURgky7H5XA46EkYf3lSMdxYwJ3PFXVRSOUqTjjQ" alt="">
-</html>]]DIRECT/LOCAL: CELL TO CELL+</html>DIRECT/LOCAL: CELL TO CELL
  
   * Between animal cells → allow proteins, carbs, and lipids of the plasma membrane to transmit information   * Between animal cells → allow proteins, carbs, and lipids of the plasma membrane to transmit information
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   * The transfer of signalling molecules transmits the current state of one cell to its neighbour   * The transfer of signalling molecules transmits the current state of one cell to its neighbour
     * Helpful bcuz allows a group of cells to respond to a signal that only one of them may have received.     * Helpful bcuz allows a group of cells to respond to a signal that only one of them may have received.
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_4|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_4.png}}]] +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_4|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_4.png}} 
   =====Signal Transduction Pathways=====    =====Signal Transduction Pathways===== 
     * Sequence of molecular interactions that transforms an extracellular signal into a specific cellular response; takes place AFTER a signaling molecule (ligand) binds to receptor     * Sequence of molecular interactions that transforms an extracellular signal into a specific cellular response; takes place AFTER a signaling molecule (ligand) binds to receptor
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     - Hydrophilic ligands: cannot cross membrane and bind to membrane receptors     - Hydrophilic ligands: cannot cross membrane and bind to membrane receptors
         * Ex: proteins that are both large and polar         * Ex: proteins that are both large and polar
-    - Hydrophobic ligands: non-polar signaling molecules that can cross membrane and bind to intracellular receptors [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L5z9ZlMnoZx6G9RCRH-_hr3bBKaZYBPJu91ROPa57HdCWprw1pjDu4ux0aT4y31TNE0AO0clIyXYWZk3lcdmuka_pfXaaJHtqYGKFbqRhOdnkGc1JzdGPb-_d9GOlTRxrFju1Qw5FlfGUSoSqFTimw|<html>+    - Hydrophobic ligands: non-polar signaling molecules that can cross membrane and bind to intracellular receptors https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L5z9ZlMnoZx6G9RCRH-_hr3bBKaZYBPJu91ROPa57HdCWprw1pjDu4ux0aT4y31TNE0AO0clIyXYWZk3lcdmuka_pfXaaJHtqYGKFbqRhOdnkGc1JzdGPb-_d9GOlTRxrFju1Qw5FlfGUSoSqFTimw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L5z9ZlMnoZx6G9RCRH-_hr3bBKaZYBPJu91ROPa57HdCWprw1pjDu4ux0aT4y31TNE0AO0clIyXYWZk3lcdmuka_pfXaaJHtqYGKFbqRhOdnkGc1JzdGPb-_d9GOlTRxrFju1Qw5FlfGUSoSqFTimw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L5z9ZlMnoZx6G9RCRH-_hr3bBKaZYBPJu91ROPa57HdCWprw1pjDu4ux0aT4y31TNE0AO0clIyXYWZk3lcdmuka_pfXaaJHtqYGKFbqRhOdnkGc1JzdGPb-_d9GOlTRxrFju1Qw5FlfGUSoSqFTimw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
         * Receptors: specific proteins that receive ligands and trigger transduction         * Receptors: specific proteins that receive ligands and trigger transduction
     - Membrane receptors: transmembrane & amphipathic; consists of an extracellular ligand-binding site and an intracellular domain that initiates transduction pathway     - Membrane receptors: transmembrane & amphipathic; consists of an extracellular ligand-binding site and an intracellular domain that initiates transduction pathway
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     * Scaffold Proteins: large relay proteins attached to each other which improve efficiency of signaling cascade by holding participating enzymes in close proximity     * Scaffold Proteins: large relay proteins attached to each other which improve efficiency of signaling cascade by holding participating enzymes in close proximity
       * Scaffolding also used to keep members of one signaling cascade isolated from members of another cascade       * Scaffolding also used to keep members of one signaling cascade isolated from members of another cascade
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HzHUsV5KJopPrnSPVhfC0kZavpxAWUdTpkailME5ZjiQ4HIuOmZCTv55Z02_ZQlG4GTR8qTgJ4SekFHfokL2XFZ0idSfU3sZ7WDekvc9I-l8QX--4T60aYFNhwEtBrld5CjMF-K3vN2W96FPIlop3w|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HzHUsV5KJopPrnSPVhfC0kZavpxAWUdTpkailME5ZjiQ4HIuOmZCTv55Z02_ZQlG4GTR8qTgJ4SekFHfokL2XFZ0idSfU3sZ7WDekvc9I-l8QX--4T60aYFNhwEtBrld5CjMF-K3vN2W96FPIlop3w|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HzHUsV5KJopPrnSPVhfC0kZavpxAWUdTpkailME5ZjiQ4HIuOmZCTv55Z02_ZQlG4GTR8qTgJ4SekFHfokL2XFZ0idSfU3sZ7WDekvc9I-l8QX--4T60aYFNhwEtBrld5CjMF-K3vN2W96FPIlop3w" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HzHUsV5KJopPrnSPVhfC0kZavpxAWUdTpkailME5ZjiQ4HIuOmZCTv55Z02_ZQlG4GTR8qTgJ4SekFHfokL2XFZ0idSfU3sZ7WDekvc9I-l8QX--4T60aYFNhwEtBrld5CjMF-K3vN2W96FPIlop3w" alt="">
-</html>]] [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/6uTR1OjKeEZYCpntUkaSi_vXRA_k-z5OCcvn9of4Il5295KdRwT4tjCJbUsuHp2Kb-MbpOKGVoLBZgI6BbLhII867c4VKwyqOaHIXB3vUzlooTj7Ph5hvvuI0qr-ETJXj2j91TMPXPmjyevBea8rbg|<html>+</html> https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/6uTR1OjKeEZYCpntUkaSi_vXRA_k-z5OCcvn9of4Il5295KdRwT4tjCJbUsuHp2Kb-MbpOKGVoLBZgI6BbLhII867c4VKwyqOaHIXB3vUzlooTj7Ph5hvvuI0qr-ETJXj2j91TMPXPmjyevBea8rbg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/6uTR1OjKeEZYCpntUkaSi_vXRA_k-z5OCcvn9of4Il5295KdRwT4tjCJbUsuHp2Kb-MbpOKGVoLBZgI6BbLhII867c4VKwyqOaHIXB3vUzlooTj7Ph5hvvuI0qr-ETJXj2j91TMPXPmjyevBea8rbg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/6uTR1OjKeEZYCpntUkaSi_vXRA_k-z5OCcvn9of4Il5295KdRwT4tjCJbUsuHp2Kb-MbpOKGVoLBZgI6BbLhII867c4VKwyqOaHIXB3vUzlooTj7Ph5hvvuI0qr-ETJXj2j91TMPXPmjyevBea8rbg" alt="">
-</html>]] THE PROCESS - PART 3: Response +</html> THE PROCESS - PART 3: Response 
     * Cell carries out specific behavior in response to an extracellular signal     * Cell carries out specific behavior in response to an extracellular signal
       * Cell response depends on pathway taken that leads to nuclear or cytoplasmic response       * Cell response depends on pathway taken that leads to nuclear or cytoplasmic response
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     * A change/mutation in the structure of a receptor protein or signaling molecule affects the activity of the signaling pathway and can alter the cellular response     * A change/mutation in the structure of a receptor protein or signaling molecule affects the activity of the signaling pathway and can alter the cellular response
       * Chemicals that interfere with any component of the signaling pathway may activate or inhibit it: toxins, antibiotics       * Chemicals that interfere with any component of the signaling pathway may activate or inhibit it: toxins, antibiotics
-    * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_b_80JAQDkQHH-A5OPGqsJP7vUiTik4PfzRG1t1W70Jut9FsVUdMyUjN-RcTkNPnTTq1IuDz65TSyR1A4i9hBhv6QA7ANct5JZKXjPVDCujcq92avrBq8owGOrGJ2ONuUb8bRwlnlDxzYtj9-ltyQw|<html>+    * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_b_80JAQDkQHH-A5OPGqsJP7vUiTik4PfzRG1t1W70Jut9FsVUdMyUjN-RcTkNPnTTq1IuDz65TSyR1A4i9hBhv6QA7ANct5JZKXjPVDCujcq92avrBq8owGOrGJ2ONuUb8bRwlnlDxzYtj9-ltyQw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_b_80JAQDkQHH-A5OPGqsJP7vUiTik4PfzRG1t1W70Jut9FsVUdMyUjN-RcTkNPnTTq1IuDz65TSyR1A4i9hBhv6QA7ANct5JZKXjPVDCujcq92avrBq8owGOrGJ2ONuUb8bRwlnlDxzYtj9-ltyQw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_b_80JAQDkQHH-A5OPGqsJP7vUiTik4PfzRG1t1W70Jut9FsVUdMyUjN-RcTkNPnTTq1IuDz65TSyR1A4i9hBhv6QA7ANct5JZKXjPVDCujcq92avrBq8owGOrGJ2ONuUb8bRwlnlDxzYtj9-ltyQw" alt="">
-</html>]] figure: on the left, the hedgehog would not create a signal transduction pathway because the inhibition prevents it from going any further. Feedback Mechanisms Negative Feedback and Homeostasis +</html> figure: on the left, the hedgehog would not create a signal transduction pathway because the inhibition prevents it from going any further. Feedback Mechanisms Negative Feedback and Homeostasis 
       * Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to internal and external environmental changes.       * Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to internal and external environmental changes.
       * Negative feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis       * Negative feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis
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       * Still act to maintain homeostasis (less common); occur in abnormal situations and increase abnormality so situation becomes normal       * Still act to maintain homeostasis (less common); occur in abnormal situations and increase abnormality so situation becomes normal
         * Ex. pregnancy contractions, fruit ripening, blood clotting         * Ex. pregnancy contractions, fruit ripening, blood clotting
-    * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RtYG2qp51y9vFR-IyDIPzkefJ3cxgvcn8IOzCuynFm2Puc66-MTN5uqVDNkoW6qQLF0lLxLfCz75CrOL_dIl7AjUQ_MBFAQZUGbgthTgw1ONPqU7P_cYwpT_CzSJ0UZ9n3aH2YhMpRjyyDMjCv5FCQ|<html>+    * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RtYG2qp51y9vFR-IyDIPzkefJ3cxgvcn8IOzCuynFm2Puc66-MTN5uqVDNkoW6qQLF0lLxLfCz75CrOL_dIl7AjUQ_MBFAQZUGbgthTgw1ONPqU7P_cYwpT_CzSJ0UZ9n3aH2YhMpRjyyDMjCv5FCQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RtYG2qp51y9vFR-IyDIPzkefJ3cxgvcn8IOzCuynFm2Puc66-MTN5uqVDNkoW6qQLF0lLxLfCz75CrOL_dIl7AjUQ_MBFAQZUGbgthTgw1ONPqU7P_cYwpT_CzSJ0UZ9n3aH2YhMpRjyyDMjCv5FCQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RtYG2qp51y9vFR-IyDIPzkefJ3cxgvcn8IOzCuynFm2Puc66-MTN5uqVDNkoW6qQLF0lLxLfCz75CrOL_dIl7AjUQ_MBFAQZUGbgthTgw1ONPqU7P_cYwpT_CzSJ0UZ9n3aH2YhMpRjyyDMjCv5FCQ" alt="">
-</html>]] Example: Blood Vessel Injury If there is an injury to a cell, molecules are released and trigger previously inactive clotting factors. Clotting factors activated → activated more clotting factors → amplification continues until injury healed Alterations in Loops +</html> Example: Blood Vessel Injury If there is an injury to a cell, molecules are released and trigger previously inactive clotting factors. Clotting factors activated → activated more clotting factors → amplification continues until injury healed Alterations in Loops 
       * Disrupt homeostasis → Diabetes: cells don’t work so when glucose lvl increases, no insulin made to regulate       * Disrupt homeostasis → Diabetes: cells don’t work so when glucose lvl increases, no insulin made to regulate
     * Phosphorylation      * Phosphorylation 
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     * Smaller cells better because easier to coordinate chromosomes and microtubules with less ATP     * Smaller cells better because easier to coordinate chromosomes and microtubules with less ATP
     * DNA content doubles during Interphase (S phase) and halves during mitosis     * DNA content doubles during Interphase (S phase) and halves during mitosis
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Wr_RWeygrHz7T8nmFVecQQObXPpnTefdgyTFS0XJjvVUCIE5MVHSUBHUqgkJO99_15aeSoHkJAB0dPS91ywQHPjqoJnnF0NUWnM9vomV3WZDxFJLISG-kvBeAMihgw-Upg0B4hHGz7qvyJZLLVMZSg|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Wr_RWeygrHz7T8nmFVecQQObXPpnTefdgyTFS0XJjvVUCIE5MVHSUBHUqgkJO99_15aeSoHkJAB0dPS91ywQHPjqoJnnF0NUWnM9vomV3WZDxFJLISG-kvBeAMihgw-Upg0B4hHGz7qvyJZLLVMZSg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Wr_RWeygrHz7T8nmFVecQQObXPpnTefdgyTFS0XJjvVUCIE5MVHSUBHUqgkJO99_15aeSoHkJAB0dPS91ywQHPjqoJnnF0NUWnM9vomV3WZDxFJLISG-kvBeAMihgw-Upg0B4hHGz7qvyJZLLVMZSg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Wr_RWeygrHz7T8nmFVecQQObXPpnTefdgyTFS0XJjvVUCIE5MVHSUBHUqgkJO99_15aeSoHkJAB0dPS91ywQHPjqoJnnF0NUWnM9vomV3WZDxFJLISG-kvBeAMihgw-Upg0B4hHGz7qvyJZLLVMZSg" alt="">
-</html>]] Cell Cycle: Summary Interphase +</html> Cell Cycle: Summary Interphase 
     * Majority of cell cycle, split into 3 phases     * Majority of cell cycle, split into 3 phases
       * All have metabolic activity & growth       * All have metabolic activity & growth
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       * Can re-enter the cell cycle in response to appropriate cues.       * Can re-enter the cell cycle in response to appropriate cues.
     * Nondividing cells may exit the cell cycle or be held at a particular stage in it     * Nondividing cells may exit the cell cycle or be held at a particular stage in it
-  * How Does Mitosis Produce 2 Identical Daughter Cells [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L4kzRrHgJKc4tynvqddI6MMQm1Nm6x7xyIn2yUt7fraKuniDcqz055p6rZOV3UGmDR8FgJx_o6J1jUZ7fwP1WFhF82ixUYklwI5qaAm7pD6FnRTkoXjfocziUKGeCpWARPwQm68fjKU0euTZJRmrtQ|<html>+  * How Does Mitosis Produce 2 Identical Daughter Cells https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L4kzRrHgJKc4tynvqddI6MMQm1Nm6x7xyIn2yUt7fraKuniDcqz055p6rZOV3UGmDR8FgJx_o6J1jUZ7fwP1WFhF82ixUYklwI5qaAm7pD6FnRTkoXjfocziUKGeCpWARPwQm68fjKU0euTZJRmrtQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L4kzRrHgJKc4tynvqddI6MMQm1Nm6x7xyIn2yUt7fraKuniDcqz055p6rZOV3UGmDR8FgJx_o6J1jUZ7fwP1WFhF82ixUYklwI5qaAm7pD6FnRTkoXjfocziUKGeCpWARPwQm68fjKU0euTZJRmrtQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/L4kzRrHgJKc4tynvqddI6MMQm1Nm6x7xyIn2yUt7fraKuniDcqz055p6rZOV3UGmDR8FgJx_o6J1jUZ7fwP1WFhF82ixUYklwI5qaAm7pD6FnRTkoXjfocziUKGeCpWARPwQm68fjKU0euTZJRmrtQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * DNA Replication (Interphase) and separation of chromatids (Anaphase)     * DNA Replication (Interphase) and separation of chromatids (Anaphase)
     * Once duplicated, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, connected along their entire length     * Once duplicated, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, connected along their entire length
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     * Each centrosomes contain two centrioles     * Each centrosomes contain two centrioles
     * duplicated chromosomes but not condensed/visible     * duplicated chromosomes but not condensed/visible
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/S0uNPrThKmFd25lscWukvU2PipBrvEx_jK13jt150rFhpJLQCe3sRSf4uReVVfgUEpCDxHPFSO01SXAgABG23s1M2uxf8sWqFY5-eV7fZvlLRL5XD2RTMgpTuSn-rVLeRbPIc15hatgxiZuzb4Em4Q|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/S0uNPrThKmFd25lscWukvU2PipBrvEx_jK13jt150rFhpJLQCe3sRSf4uReVVfgUEpCDxHPFSO01SXAgABG23s1M2uxf8sWqFY5-eV7fZvlLRL5XD2RTMgpTuSn-rVLeRbPIc15hatgxiZuzb4Em4Q|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/S0uNPrThKmFd25lscWukvU2PipBrvEx_jK13jt150rFhpJLQCe3sRSf4uReVVfgUEpCDxHPFSO01SXAgABG23s1M2uxf8sWqFY5-eV7fZvlLRL5XD2RTMgpTuSn-rVLeRbPIc15hatgxiZuzb4Em4Q" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/S0uNPrThKmFd25lscWukvU2PipBrvEx_jK13jt150rFhpJLQCe3sRSf4uReVVfgUEpCDxHPFSO01SXAgABG23s1M2uxf8sWqFY5-eV7fZvlLRL5XD2RTMgpTuSn-rVLeRbPIc15hatgxiZuzb4Em4Q" alt="">
-</html>]] Prophase (condensation) +</html> Prophase (condensation) 
     * Nucleoli gone, nuclear envelope thinning     * Nucleoli gone, nuclear envelope thinning
     * Chromatin fibers condense into tightly coiled and visible chromosomes     * Chromatin fibers condense into tightly coiled and visible chromosomes
     * Mitotic spindle begins to form by adding tubulin units to microtubules     * Mitotic spindle begins to form by adding tubulin units to microtubules
     * Centrosomes move away by lengthening microtubules     * Centrosomes move away by lengthening microtubules
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xKeCANDNvVg8VlT66vW5Acva4sDwF59qyEPF5qEfdUFSalYXNrD9ULJW10SCxCJPtDGiK1cbFpwNuCHcWFVN_CzTFHilCGYCG_ZNV2CzBVxi2NovucgcPZ9XEwCXI7hpxLrJ8BVBZww5ZaJPmqqJHw|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xKeCANDNvVg8VlT66vW5Acva4sDwF59qyEPF5qEfdUFSalYXNrD9ULJW10SCxCJPtDGiK1cbFpwNuCHcWFVN_CzTFHilCGYCG_ZNV2CzBVxi2NovucgcPZ9XEwCXI7hpxLrJ8BVBZww5ZaJPmqqJHw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xKeCANDNvVg8VlT66vW5Acva4sDwF59qyEPF5qEfdUFSalYXNrD9ULJW10SCxCJPtDGiK1cbFpwNuCHcWFVN_CzTFHilCGYCG_ZNV2CzBVxi2NovucgcPZ9XEwCXI7hpxLrJ8BVBZww5ZaJPmqqJHw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xKeCANDNvVg8VlT66vW5Acva4sDwF59qyEPF5qEfdUFSalYXNrD9ULJW10SCxCJPtDGiK1cbFpwNuCHcWFVN_CzTFHilCGYCG_ZNV2CzBVxi2NovucgcPZ9XEwCXI7hpxLrJ8BVBZww5ZaJPmqqJHw" alt="">
-</html>]] Prometaphase +</html> Prometaphase 
     * Nuclear envelope gone     * Nuclear envelope gone
     * Kinetochores form at centromere of each chromatid     * Kinetochores form at centromere of each chromatid
     * 2 types of microtubules form and go into nuclear area     * 2 types of microtubules form and go into nuclear area
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HyIUlvnyj5JqF41m1gkXsSACqCunvv62t-ypSnrwi2ATSLulbstL2UzpsIO81akipR8RWyiU0-9zhxwEcdsc2DK2prgdZ55KWdZogQvVhs3boa20edBJNMTbEk7eoKMx2uuojNaVAtESxYRhjWu3OQ|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HyIUlvnyj5JqF41m1gkXsSACqCunvv62t-ypSnrwi2ATSLulbstL2UzpsIO81akipR8RWyiU0-9zhxwEcdsc2DK2prgdZ55KWdZogQvVhs3boa20edBJNMTbEk7eoKMx2uuojNaVAtESxYRhjWu3OQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HyIUlvnyj5JqF41m1gkXsSACqCunvv62t-ypSnrwi2ATSLulbstL2UzpsIO81akipR8RWyiU0-9zhxwEcdsc2DK2prgdZ55KWdZogQvVhs3boa20edBJNMTbEk7eoKMx2uuojNaVAtESxYRhjWu3OQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HyIUlvnyj5JqF41m1gkXsSACqCunvv62t-ypSnrwi2ATSLulbstL2UzpsIO81akipR8RWyiU0-9zhxwEcdsc2DK2prgdZ55KWdZogQvVhs3boa20edBJNMTbEk7eoKMx2uuojNaVAtESxYRhjWu3OQ" alt="">
-</html>]] Metaphase (middle) +</html> Metaphase (middle) 
     * Chromosomes line up at metaphase plane (equidistant between spindles two poles)     * Chromosomes line up at metaphase plane (equidistant between spindles two poles)
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/9n-cjXjqn0uYusvNSZngv5i7v19_d1dhhCsUgAzLVJUQi4LgUymZvbceSLUxGjdZfzsRmzPMg92-4kx5tbEoTHKfqLxnH9a8jWcgNPG8eG6BBwKsN6kGd1Ix61gR1Hhb3MTafkpJHiV8ae1naV0QbA|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/9n-cjXjqn0uYusvNSZngv5i7v19_d1dhhCsUgAzLVJUQi4LgUymZvbceSLUxGjdZfzsRmzPMg92-4kx5tbEoTHKfqLxnH9a8jWcgNPG8eG6BBwKsN6kGd1Ix61gR1Hhb3MTafkpJHiV8ae1naV0QbA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/9n-cjXjqn0uYusvNSZngv5i7v19_d1dhhCsUgAzLVJUQi4LgUymZvbceSLUxGjdZfzsRmzPMg92-4kx5tbEoTHKfqLxnH9a8jWcgNPG8eG6BBwKsN6kGd1Ix61gR1Hhb3MTafkpJHiV8ae1naV0QbA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/9n-cjXjqn0uYusvNSZngv5i7v19_d1dhhCsUgAzLVJUQi4LgUymZvbceSLUxGjdZfzsRmzPMg92-4kx5tbEoTHKfqLxnH9a8jWcgNPG8eG6BBwKsN6kGd1Ix61gR1Hhb3MTafkpJHiV8ae1naV0QbA" alt="">
-</html>]] Anaphase (seperation) +</html> Anaphase (seperation) 
     * Shortest stage     * Shortest stage
     * Sister chromatids become individual chromosomes when cohesion proteins are cleaved → are reeled to opposite poles as microtubules shorten by uncoupling tubulin units     * Sister chromatids become individual chromosomes when cohesion proteins are cleaved → are reeled to opposite poles as microtubules shorten by uncoupling tubulin units
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zj56AUwzmU8OAjRIQLfqUSCzhbpDo1Yl0GsVxfrGIPpnmw0PCgLw_2W0IM0rv3lgL6ZBm2ip2Bs6Mm9MxdpBcCN-CAA_xJycgNth1YcHvoy0h95jKziV9uTZJp0xqgFgl5cXeBL8rtTo7-WqjXCHLQ|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zj56AUwzmU8OAjRIQLfqUSCzhbpDo1Yl0GsVxfrGIPpnmw0PCgLw_2W0IM0rv3lgL6ZBm2ip2Bs6Mm9MxdpBcCN-CAA_xJycgNth1YcHvoy0h95jKziV9uTZJp0xqgFgl5cXeBL8rtTo7-WqjXCHLQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zj56AUwzmU8OAjRIQLfqUSCzhbpDo1Yl0GsVxfrGIPpnmw0PCgLw_2W0IM0rv3lgL6ZBm2ip2Bs6Mm9MxdpBcCN-CAA_xJycgNth1YcHvoy0h95jKziV9uTZJp0xqgFgl5cXeBL8rtTo7-WqjXCHLQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zj56AUwzmU8OAjRIQLfqUSCzhbpDo1Yl0GsVxfrGIPpnmw0PCgLw_2W0IM0rv3lgL6ZBm2ip2Bs6Mm9MxdpBcCN-CAA_xJycgNth1YcHvoy0h95jKziV9uTZJp0xqgFgl5cXeBL8rtTo7-WqjXCHLQ" alt="">
-</html>]] Telophase (restoration) and Cytokinesis +</html> Telophase (restoration) and Cytokinesis 
     * Two daughter nucleoli form from parent fragments and endomembrane system; one at each pole     * Two daughter nucleoli form from parent fragments and endomembrane system; one at each pole
     * chromo decondense & become chromatin, microtubules depolymerize     * chromo decondense & become chromatin, microtubules depolymerize
     * nucleoli & envelope reappears     * nucleoli & envelope reappears
     * cleavage furrow begins to separate the two into sister cells     * cleavage furrow begins to separate the two into sister cells
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/PRA2c7dK46x4aEqcD02tEiv5iTpnzWn807YmZoBSrHGmO27C9WEA6h2SZY9xJeviuAsJs5Yw7VtVEIToo4ts2IAbxCEopqCPTsY4_vVZ8nDyBpaeHrr0Tj1VLIbT-R3etmNsqE3dRozK97CRvs3vkw|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/PRA2c7dK46x4aEqcD02tEiv5iTpnzWn807YmZoBSrHGmO27C9WEA6h2SZY9xJeviuAsJs5Yw7VtVEIToo4ts2IAbxCEopqCPTsY4_vVZ8nDyBpaeHrr0Tj1VLIbT-R3etmNsqE3dRozK97CRvs3vkw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/PRA2c7dK46x4aEqcD02tEiv5iTpnzWn807YmZoBSrHGmO27C9WEA6h2SZY9xJeviuAsJs5Yw7VtVEIToo4ts2IAbxCEopqCPTsY4_vVZ8nDyBpaeHrr0Tj1VLIbT-R3etmNsqE3dRozK97CRvs3vkw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/PRA2c7dK46x4aEqcD02tEiv5iTpnzWn807YmZoBSrHGmO27C9WEA6h2SZY9xJeviuAsJs5Yw7VtVEIToo4ts2IAbxCEopqCPTsY4_vVZ8nDyBpaeHrr0Tj1VLIbT-R3etmNsqE3dRozK97CRvs3vkw" alt="">
-</html>]] Cytokinesis +</html> Cytokinesis 
     * Animal cells: carry out cytokinesis by forming a cleavage furrow: groove that forms as purse strings are tightened     * Animal cells: carry out cytokinesis by forming a cleavage furrow: groove that forms as purse strings are tightened
       * Actin filaments (microfilaments) form a ring inside plasma membrane between two nuclei → microfilaments shorten → stimulate cell contraction that causes cell to pinch inwards until divides       * Actin filaments (microfilaments) form a ring inside plasma membrane between two nuclei → microfilaments shorten → stimulate cell contraction that causes cell to pinch inwards until divides
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Plants cells: cell wall too rigid so can’t pinch inward, instead vesicles from golgi move to middle and make a cell plate which fuses with cell membrane and produces 2 daughter cells     * Plants cells: cell wall too rigid so can’t pinch inward, instead vesicles from golgi move to middle and make a cell plate which fuses with cell membrane and produces 2 daughter cells
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/l-ur3zN4RoxSJs7-vO12A3bZ8bM4XBAxX1HzHQg9oFsEJvRYH5rKMY5pE59iWPRqEf8RyH5E0blS5QA2DM1AHKZGj1L54Rk2RsRp6MJmDD-C2ONd3AyInAXuyuSxawS8T-bz8I2693FZUzLcpdzoeA" alt="">
-</html>]] Mitosis Function: +</html> Mitosis Function: 
     - Asexual Reproduction: only unicellular organism     - Asexual Reproduction: only unicellular organism
     - Growth and development: get bigger by adding more cells     - Growth and development: get bigger by adding more cells
Line 2039: Line 2039:
     * CDKs + Cyclins= Cyclin-CDK complexes such as Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF)     * CDKs + Cyclins= Cyclin-CDK complexes such as Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF)
       * CDKs increase in lvls with cyclins       * CDKs increase in lvls with cyclins
-  * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/tVv3c6Dx1zSbwVQka5rbmulum_uSv0auRxWMdsI23N4r_6PnmG3vQWFQQl_pmIFsO5-DHTaUHZvt_neJIuun1kyckyDWvXM0ZsfqIheKRPuFxyS1R7qJqWP7G9gHDvmKKC_n-llT-8b6r3Y3U8FmOg|<html>+  * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/tVv3c6Dx1zSbwVQka5rbmulum_uSv0auRxWMdsI23N4r_6PnmG3vQWFQQl_pmIFsO5-DHTaUHZvt_neJIuun1kyckyDWvXM0ZsfqIheKRPuFxyS1R7qJqWP7G9gHDvmKKC_n-llT-8b6r3Y3U8FmOg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/tVv3c6Dx1zSbwVQka5rbmulum_uSv0auRxWMdsI23N4r_6PnmG3vQWFQQl_pmIFsO5-DHTaUHZvt_neJIuun1kyckyDWvXM0ZsfqIheKRPuFxyS1R7qJqWP7G9gHDvmKKC_n-llT-8b6r3Y3U8FmOg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/tVv3c6Dx1zSbwVQka5rbmulum_uSv0auRxWMdsI23N4r_6PnmG3vQWFQQl_pmIFsO5-DHTaUHZvt_neJIuun1kyckyDWvXM0ZsfqIheKRPuFxyS1R7qJqWP7G9gHDvmKKC_n-llT-8b6r3Y3U8FmOg" alt="">
-</html>]] Purple Line: MPF activity +</html> Purple Line: MPF activity 
     * Shows that it peaks at mitosis & drops again at every checkpoint     * Shows that it peaks at mitosis & drops again at every checkpoint
   * Red Line: Cyclin    * Red Line: Cyclin 
Line 2073: Line 2073:
   * Causes for Oncogenes    * Causes for Oncogenes 
     - Gene Translocations: Chromosome broken and rejoined incorrectly; Errors may place gene close to control regions and then expression of wrong gene products can make cancer worse     - Gene Translocations: Chromosome broken and rejoined incorrectly; Errors may place gene close to control regions and then expression of wrong gene products can make cancer worse
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_5|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_5.png}}]] +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_5|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_5.png}} 
     - Gene Amplification: too many copies of gene → excess growth-stimulating proteins     - Gene Amplification: too many copies of gene → excess growth-stimulating proteins
     - Epigenetic: abnormal chromatin condensation → proto-oncogene expressed at the wrong time or amount     - Epigenetic: abnormal chromatin condensation → proto-oncogene expressed at the wrong time or amount
Line 2097: Line 2097:
       * Protein products repair DNA, control adhesion, and regulate cell signalling pathways that inhibit cell cycle       * Protein products repair DNA, control adhesion, and regulate cell signalling pathways that inhibit cell cycle
     * Defective version of a protein in an inhibitory pathway (p53) fails to act as a tumour-suppressor.     * Defective version of a protein in an inhibitory pathway (p53) fails to act as a tumour-suppressor.
-  * Interference with Normal Cell Signaling Pathways factor With P53 Transcription Factor: [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_6|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_6.png}}]] +  * Interference with Normal Cell Signaling Pathways factor With P53 Transcription Factor: Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_6|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_6.png}} 
     * Activated by signal transduction pathway when DNA is damaged from external factors and promotes transcription of cycle-inhibiting proteins     * Activated by signal transduction pathway when DNA is damaged from external factors and promotes transcription of cycle-inhibiting proteins
-  * Without P53 Transcription Factor: [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/ydiVlqkvcqxXXqE73gI1Yebo5JuL_Ke6aZg17wa5IUnjg2P_N3XM_jJ-2S5CB86_HtkHz-N4bJ5Sps1CiwibdB-z8WASXNjWF-kqJHSC-erR-xFO8PyuQyy4U083TsR8EIeiBHEB7crCrpojZ6_MRg|<html>+  * Without P53 Transcription Factor: https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/ydiVlqkvcqxXXqE73gI1Yebo5JuL_Ke6aZg17wa5IUnjg2P_N3XM_jJ-2S5CB86_HtkHz-N4bJ5Sps1CiwibdB-z8WASXNjWF-kqJHSC-erR-xFO8PyuQyy4U083TsR8EIeiBHEB7crCrpojZ6_MRg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/ydiVlqkvcqxXXqE73gI1Yebo5JuL_Ke6aZg17wa5IUnjg2P_N3XM_jJ-2S5CB86_HtkHz-N4bJ5Sps1CiwibdB-z8WASXNjWF-kqJHSC-erR-xFO8PyuQyy4U083TsR8EIeiBHEB7crCrpojZ6_MRg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/ydiVlqkvcqxXXqE73gI1Yebo5JuL_Ke6aZg17wa5IUnjg2P_N3XM_jJ-2S5CB86_HtkHz-N4bJ5Sps1CiwibdB-z8WASXNjWF-kqJHSC-erR-xFO8PyuQyy4U083TsR8EIeiBHEB7crCrpojZ6_MRg" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * If gene mutates, damaged cells can proliferate and spread, becoming tumor     * If gene mutates, damaged cells can proliferate and spread, becoming tumor
     * Increased cell division     * Increased cell division
-  * Ras gene: [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_7|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_7.png}}]] +  * Ras gene: Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_7|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_7.png}} 
     * Gene that codes for G protein that relays growth factor message     * Gene that codes for G protein that relays growth factor message
     * When gene is mutated, causes ras protein to be overexpressed and cell cycle overstimulated     * When gene is mutated, causes ras protein to be overexpressed and cell cycle overstimulated
Line 2118: Line 2118:
 * Diploid (2n): cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n=46) * Diploid (2n): cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n=46)
     * Somatic Cells: (normal) body cells, that have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), half from mom half from dad     * Somatic Cells: (normal) body cells, that have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), half from mom half from dad
-* Homologous chromosomes(homologs): pair of chromosomes with same size, shape, centromere, and same genes that control specific inheritance pattern but different versions [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw|<html>+* Homologous chromosomes(homologs): pair of chromosomes with same size, shape, centromere, and same genes that control specific inheritance pattern but different versions https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * One maternal and other paternal     * One maternal and other paternal
 * Allele: different versions of the same gene controlling a trait caused by mutations→ contribute to overall phenotype * Allele: different versions of the same gene controlling a trait caused by mutations→ contribute to overall phenotype
Line 2154: Line 2154:
 * Diploid (2n): cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n=46) * Diploid (2n): cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n=46)
     * Somatic Cells: (normal) body cells, that have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), half from mom half from dad     * Somatic Cells: (normal) body cells, that have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), half from mom half from dad
-* Homologous chromosomes(homologs): pair of chromosomes with same size, shape, centromere, and same genes that control specific inheritance pattern but different versions [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw|<html>+* Homologous chromosomes(homologs): pair of chromosomes with same size, shape, centromere, and same genes that control specific inheritance pattern but different versions https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/HKSBmyMJhWsFtm3DryyYTR7yv33irXyquq3ohKPFqU00_rbgJlZNCpmXkZaD3gYV4jVk5GiRsRF7BTdrIid06GPiwWkaKCZBnTmEXPItaO5NXTea6qIPcCn5LWc2aQMuOlQCa5sEzifCg1ZNctiYgw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * One maternal and other paternal     * One maternal and other paternal
 * Allele: different versions of the same gene controlling a trait caused by mutations→ contribute to overall phenotype * Allele: different versions of the same gene controlling a trait caused by mutations→ contribute to overall phenotype
Line 2176: Line 2176:
 * ex. A diploid plant (sporophyte) produces, by meiosis, a spore that gives rise to a multicellular gametophyte * ex. A diploid plant (sporophyte) produces, by meiosis, a spore that gives rise to a multicellular gametophyte
 ====Meiosis: Key Overview====  ====Meiosis: Key Overview==== 
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_8|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_8.png}}]] +Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_8|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_8.png}} 
     * Meiosis: specialized cell division that yields 4 nonidentical, haploid gametes in sexually reproducing diploid organisms     * Meiosis: specialized cell division that yields 4 nonidentical, haploid gametes in sexually reproducing diploid organisms
       * Only occurs specialized (diploid) cells like testes & ovaries in humans to make sperm and egg       * Only occurs specialized (diploid) cells like testes & ovaries in humans to make sperm and egg
Line 2190: Line 2190:
     * When homologs cross over, specific proteins break/unwinds pieces of genetic material on a chromosome & attaches it to non-sister chromatids on homolog (recombines) → exchanges DNA segments     * When homologs cross over, specific proteins break/unwinds pieces of genetic material on a chromosome & attaches it to non-sister chromatids on homolog (recombines) → exchanges DNA segments
     * Physical constraints: probability of crossing over between genes is proportional to distance between two genes (increases as distance becomes larger)     * Physical constraints: probability of crossing over between genes is proportional to distance between two genes (increases as distance becomes larger)
-    * Chiasmata (sing. Chiasma): Point of contact between two nonsister chromatids where crossing over will occur [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mVA2d7m0EBKdoLRVoLkXBjfdhDx8Zpv5ky_sxN6F-P7seO3lTVRJ74pLoqZF4-r2nqRR_lb-nwnr1Jf9B9XiqYCH4siYAOn-SwRDzHWqZbRVmXTLwuxtmG9H0wL20fcC52yfsZB2yvxvAcQPEmbI_A|<html>+    * Chiasmata (sing. Chiasma): Point of contact between two nonsister chromatids where crossing over will occur https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mVA2d7m0EBKdoLRVoLkXBjfdhDx8Zpv5ky_sxN6F-P7seO3lTVRJ74pLoqZF4-r2nqRR_lb-nwnr1Jf9B9XiqYCH4siYAOn-SwRDzHWqZbRVmXTLwuxtmG9H0wL20fcC52yfsZB2yvxvAcQPEmbI_A|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mVA2d7m0EBKdoLRVoLkXBjfdhDx8Zpv5ky_sxN6F-P7seO3lTVRJ74pLoqZF4-r2nqRR_lb-nwnr1Jf9B9XiqYCH4siYAOn-SwRDzHWqZbRVmXTLwuxtmG9H0wL20fcC52yfsZB2yvxvAcQPEmbI_A" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mVA2d7m0EBKdoLRVoLkXBjfdhDx8Zpv5ky_sxN6F-P7seO3lTVRJ74pLoqZF4-r2nqRR_lb-nwnr1Jf9B9XiqYCH4siYAOn-SwRDzHWqZbRVmXTLwuxtmG9H0wL20fcC52yfsZB2yvxvAcQPEmbI_A" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
       * Holds homologous pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion       * Holds homologous pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion
       * Absence leads to aneuploidy       * Absence leads to aneuploidy
Line 2199: Line 2199:
   * Mitosis vs Meiosis    * Mitosis vs Meiosis 
     * Both have separation of sister chromatids     * Both have separation of sister chromatids
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_9|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_9.png}}]] [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/23-t2oHzqSgT9YFM7H3k8Niel1vHpH14WGgbQHKzcT7qMj6hfdRqyA0qg1eXVWl9iUpQb4KRnT104DB-N3rawirNnimAO5__rd-BTPyXnuUXPn0R6OzbumydDuAKiLGfLcHhv8JRokGrc7CK_L-8DQ|<html>+  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_9|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_9.png}} https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/23-t2oHzqSgT9YFM7H3k8Niel1vHpH14WGgbQHKzcT7qMj6hfdRqyA0qg1eXVWl9iUpQb4KRnT104DB-N3rawirNnimAO5__rd-BTPyXnuUXPn0R6OzbumydDuAKiLGfLcHhv8JRokGrc7CK_L-8DQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/23-t2oHzqSgT9YFM7H3k8Niel1vHpH14WGgbQHKzcT7qMj6hfdRqyA0qg1eXVWl9iUpQb4KRnT104DB-N3rawirNnimAO5__rd-BTPyXnuUXPn0R6OzbumydDuAKiLGfLcHhv8JRokGrc7CK_L-8DQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/23-t2oHzqSgT9YFM7H3k8Niel1vHpH14WGgbQHKzcT7qMj6hfdRqyA0qg1eXVWl9iUpQb4KRnT104DB-N3rawirNnimAO5__rd-BTPyXnuUXPn0R6OzbumydDuAKiLGfLcHhv8JRokGrc7CK_L-8DQ" alt="">
-</html>]] Genetic Variation Contributes to Evolution +</html> Genetic Variation Contributes to Evolution 
     * When genes mutate, they take multiple forms with each gene slightly differing in sequence of base DNA (alleles)     * When genes mutate, they take multiple forms with each gene slightly differing in sequence of base DNA (alleles)
   * Three mechanisms to contribute to genetic variation    * Three mechanisms to contribute to genetic variation 
Line 2267: Line 2267:
 Types of Crosses Types of Crosses
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/WZ7166RNIbldE7U0Qv6dwvJqn13kmU7r_bveufyeByRsK_jjDgiZ15ZG-Ftybushms86QfsTpn08I9otMECqFuNBREmcGbU2sNxy9bAiQn1Lw-x0apJUte47i6Yw_zX2bvlGyK9zxF-6qo_A1TEENQ|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/WZ7166RNIbldE7U0Qv6dwvJqn13kmU7r_bveufyeByRsK_jjDgiZ15ZG-Ftybushms86QfsTpn08I9otMECqFuNBREmcGbU2sNxy9bAiQn1Lw-x0apJUte47i6Yw_zX2bvlGyK9zxF-6qo_A1TEENQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/WZ7166RNIbldE7U0Qv6dwvJqn13kmU7r_bveufyeByRsK_jjDgiZ15ZG-Ftybushms86QfsTpn08I9otMECqFuNBREmcGbU2sNxy9bAiQn1Lw-x0apJUte47i6Yw_zX2bvlGyK9zxF-6qo_A1TEENQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/WZ7166RNIbldE7U0Qv6dwvJqn13kmU7r_bveufyeByRsK_jjDgiZ15ZG-Ftybushms86QfsTpn08I9otMECqFuNBREmcGbU2sNxy9bAiQn1Lw-x0apJUte47i6Yw_zX2bvlGyK9zxF-6qo_A1TEENQ" alt="">
-</html>]]  - Monohybrid cross: only one trait (ex: stem length)+</html>  - Monohybrid cross: only one trait (ex: stem length)
  
   - Dihybrid Cross: investigating two traits (Ex: stem length and flower color) [16 squares → use FOIL]   - Dihybrid Cross: investigating two traits (Ex: stem length and flower color) [16 squares → use FOIL]
Line 2313: Line 2313:
  
 ====Rules of Probability==== ====Rules of Probability====
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/LhBI_9rsjh4UkO8V2csjSjCTOq40dBF-CseKWXVqzWirJQFmGWiNkFdCiujKgB2tBH2Kmbt69Oc9aUHSHUN8SXgGFkr1qSVa5QBXyDXJlELGlsfJqQIKQkWL71N4gSy7Jy_YpbmK_vwoRZz5FzufRA|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/LhBI_9rsjh4UkO8V2csjSjCTOq40dBF-CseKWXVqzWirJQFmGWiNkFdCiujKgB2tBH2Kmbt69Oc9aUHSHUN8SXgGFkr1qSVa5QBXyDXJlELGlsfJqQIKQkWL71N4gSy7Jy_YpbmK_vwoRZz5FzufRA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/LhBI_9rsjh4UkO8V2csjSjCTOq40dBF-CseKWXVqzWirJQFmGWiNkFdCiujKgB2tBH2Kmbt69Oc9aUHSHUN8SXgGFkr1qSVa5QBXyDXJlELGlsfJqQIKQkWL71N4gSy7Jy_YpbmK_vwoRZz5FzufRA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/LhBI_9rsjh4UkO8V2csjSjCTOq40dBF-CseKWXVqzWirJQFmGWiNkFdCiujKgB2tBH2Kmbt69Oc9aUHSHUN8SXgGFkr1qSVa5QBXyDXJlELGlsfJqQIKQkWL71N4gSy7Jy_YpbmK_vwoRZz5FzufRA" alt="">
-</html>]]  * Rules of probability can be applied to analyze passage of single-gene traits from the parent to the offspring.+</html>  * Rules of probability can be applied to analyze passage of single-gene traits from the parent to the offspring.
  
 For harder problems, where there are 2 alleles (AaBb) For harder problems, where there are 2 alleles (AaBb)
Line 2347: Line 2347:
 Relationship Among Alleles of a Single Gene Relationship Among Alleles of a Single Gene
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_10|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_10.png}}]][[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_11|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_11.png}}]][[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_12|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_12.png}}]]  - Complete dominance: Heterozygous phenotype is the same as the dominant+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_10|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_10.png}}Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_11|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_11.png}}Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_12|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_12.png}}  - Complete dominance: Heterozygous phenotype is the same as the dominant
  
   - Incomplete dominance of either allele: heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between two homozygous   - Incomplete dominance of either allele: heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between two homozygous
Line 2466: Line 2466:
     * Goes against Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment (every character inherited on its own and ASSUMES EVERY GENE IS FOUND ON A DIFFERENT CHROMOSOME)     * Goes against Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment (every character inherited on its own and ASSUMES EVERY GENE IS FOUND ON A DIFFERENT CHROMOSOME)
  
-  * When OBSERVED amounts do not match the EXPECTED offspring phenotype → genes must be linked [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/POiUEIVLNI_CIQ7jA3OjYJ21cvHka0xg4Zqz_2bUdbom1FLenI5g4S60fh_QD8FjkMVwChNzWZuP1_tMRntv8sWMv9_-3Tt0-cb5qGNJKum4Riot7826Fg69MSPllfAKG0R2Pe27z_2cO58_h9uKfw|<html>+  * When OBSERVED amounts do not match the EXPECTED offspring phenotype → genes must be linked https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/POiUEIVLNI_CIQ7jA3OjYJ21cvHka0xg4Zqz_2bUdbom1FLenI5g4S60fh_QD8FjkMVwChNzWZuP1_tMRntv8sWMv9_-3Tt0-cb5qGNJKum4Riot7826Fg69MSPllfAKG0R2Pe27z_2cO58_h9uKfw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/POiUEIVLNI_CIQ7jA3OjYJ21cvHka0xg4Zqz_2bUdbom1FLenI5g4S60fh_QD8FjkMVwChNzWZuP1_tMRntv8sWMv9_-3Tt0-cb5qGNJKum4Riot7826Fg69MSPllfAKG0R2Pe27z_2cO58_h9uKfw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/POiUEIVLNI_CIQ7jA3OjYJ21cvHka0xg4Zqz_2bUdbom1FLenI5g4S60fh_QD8FjkMVwChNzWZuP1_tMRntv8sWMv9_-3Tt0-cb5qGNJKum4Riot7826Fg69MSPllfAKG0R2Pe27z_2cO58_h9uKfw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Expected: parental & recombinant type are equal     * Expected: parental & recombinant type are equal
     * More than 50% offspring look the same as parent = genes are linked     * More than 50% offspring look the same as parent = genes are linked
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0nGKJqi6V86j8sUhk8JEoQ2oR0Mvn0nkBPlY_AB0xrVAZ7_vMGzGHB1E61FgNCbf-FSGW5_cG582oB3sYId2_y9SxY7RfY25R7MbQ1SAKghfKOE5m-vhBEXPlRl_phmysKm-DW54WtV718zxMPRW9A|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0nGKJqi6V86j8sUhk8JEoQ2oR0Mvn0nkBPlY_AB0xrVAZ7_vMGzGHB1E61FgNCbf-FSGW5_cG582oB3sYId2_y9SxY7RfY25R7MbQ1SAKghfKOE5m-vhBEXPlRl_phmysKm-DW54WtV718zxMPRW9A|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0nGKJqi6V86j8sUhk8JEoQ2oR0Mvn0nkBPlY_AB0xrVAZ7_vMGzGHB1E61FgNCbf-FSGW5_cG582oB3sYId2_y9SxY7RfY25R7MbQ1SAKghfKOE5m-vhBEXPlRl_phmysKm-DW54WtV718zxMPRW9A" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/0nGKJqi6V86j8sUhk8JEoQ2oR0Mvn0nkBPlY_AB0xrVAZ7_vMGzGHB1E61FgNCbf-FSGW5_cG582oB3sYId2_y9SxY7RfY25R7MbQ1SAKghfKOE5m-vhBEXPlRl_phmysKm-DW54WtV718zxMPRW9A" alt="">
-</html>]]Percent Recombination+</html>Percent Recombination
  
   * “AKA rate of crossing over” and is directly proportional to the distance between the two linked genes   * “AKA rate of crossing over” and is directly proportional to the distance between the two linked genes
     * Genes are farther apart → more likely to cross over     * Genes are farther apart → more likely to cross over
-    * Genes are closer together → more likely to be inherited [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/1rnmGMPaECcJo-LH92DpCHj6pha8Uwz3FgevZW7WmgV3JeFvKt00ywtUGGS9aJ_OjnePAORMZEpLP6PxYH9O72A3dwqzbqqe1FnDba20SckM-dzqv46tvXQ8612cMnrYQw9jX8RZFNxl8baL2lfzWw|<html>+    * Genes are closer together → more likely to be inherited https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/1rnmGMPaECcJo-LH92DpCHj6pha8Uwz3FgevZW7WmgV3JeFvKt00ywtUGGS9aJ_OjnePAORMZEpLP6PxYH9O72A3dwqzbqqe1FnDba20SckM-dzqv46tvXQ8612cMnrYQw9jX8RZFNxl8baL2lfzWw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/1rnmGMPaECcJo-LH92DpCHj6pha8Uwz3FgevZW7WmgV3JeFvKt00ywtUGGS9aJ_OjnePAORMZEpLP6PxYH9O72A3dwqzbqqe1FnDba20SckM-dzqv46tvXQ8612cMnrYQw9jX8RZFNxl8baL2lfzWw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/1rnmGMPaECcJo-LH92DpCHj6pha8Uwz3FgevZW7WmgV3JeFvKt00ywtUGGS9aJ_OjnePAORMZEpLP6PxYH9O72A3dwqzbqqe1FnDba20SckM-dzqv46tvXQ8612cMnrYQw9jX8RZFNxl8baL2lfzWw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   * Percent Recombination: add up the recombinants → divide by total number of offsprings   * Percent Recombination: add up the recombinants → divide by total number of offsprings
Line 2515: Line 2515:
 Abnormal Chromosome Number Abnormal Chromosome Number
  
-  * Nondisjunction: occurs when chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate to opposite poles during meiosis or mitosis → daughter cells (or gametes) with extra or missing chromosomes [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ysg28XAi3rRqcsPv-yQcPHnkOU4faV2l7gJnch9_-7rTcHSwjc0BczUsEaNNW8vop8euw6Anbv0keykNDy2HAd_m2eY3t6fcjYTz3n3QuN5Sqicro4QpnotYbti2QzfNGCVAukAbhG_vicvEl9OvKg|<html>+  * Nondisjunction: occurs when chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate to opposite poles during meiosis or mitosis → daughter cells (or gametes) with extra or missing chromosomes https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ysg28XAi3rRqcsPv-yQcPHnkOU4faV2l7gJnch9_-7rTcHSwjc0BczUsEaNNW8vop8euw6Anbv0keykNDy2HAd_m2eY3t6fcjYTz3n3QuN5Sqicro4QpnotYbti2QzfNGCVAukAbhG_vicvEl9OvKg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ysg28XAi3rRqcsPv-yQcPHnkOU4faV2l7gJnch9_-7rTcHSwjc0BczUsEaNNW8vop8euw6Anbv0keykNDy2HAd_m2eY3t6fcjYTz3n3QuN5Sqicro4QpnotYbti2QzfNGCVAukAbhG_vicvEl9OvKg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ysg28XAi3rRqcsPv-yQcPHnkOU4faV2l7gJnch9_-7rTcHSwjc0BczUsEaNNW8vop8euw6Anbv0keykNDy2HAd_m2eY3t6fcjYTz3n3QuN5Sqicro4QpnotYbti2QzfNGCVAukAbhG_vicvEl9OvKg" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   - Meiosis: failure for two homologous chromosomes (maternal and paternal migrate along spindle fibers together) or two chromatids   - Meiosis: failure for two homologous chromosomes (maternal and paternal migrate along spindle fibers together) or two chromatids
Line 2556: Line 2556:
     * But in (rare) case where all cells with X^N inactivated, carrier female should express same symptoms for trait as male (ex: color blindness)     * But in (rare) case where all cells with X^N inactivated, carrier female should express same symptoms for trait as male (ex: color blindness)
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/YZBM6cNqWKJ9LoQWkJx0khlLo86sCpO6SzHSNLf6HGiQHIJU3fj2gfmqcgtwlykem4n9HsG-Y6zHzNGG30GWR-bjAnaaE9wpjZukPMB4QN1T0-WIOUVt9sFFjAxQzoK1oaUvhgn2J_5EATnmaG0o-w|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/YZBM6cNqWKJ9LoQWkJx0khlLo86sCpO6SzHSNLf6HGiQHIJU3fj2gfmqcgtwlykem4n9HsG-Y6zHzNGG30GWR-bjAnaaE9wpjZukPMB4QN1T0-WIOUVt9sFFjAxQzoK1oaUvhgn2J_5EATnmaG0o-w|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/YZBM6cNqWKJ9LoQWkJx0khlLo86sCpO6SzHSNLf6HGiQHIJU3fj2gfmqcgtwlykem4n9HsG-Y6zHzNGG30GWR-bjAnaaE9wpjZukPMB4QN1T0-WIOUVt9sFFjAxQzoK1oaUvhgn2J_5EATnmaG0o-w" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/YZBM6cNqWKJ9LoQWkJx0khlLo86sCpO6SzHSNLf6HGiQHIJU3fj2gfmqcgtwlykem4n9HsG-Y6zHzNGG30GWR-bjAnaaE9wpjZukPMB4QN1T0-WIOUVt9sFFjAxQzoK1oaUvhgn2J_5EATnmaG0o-w" alt="">
-</html>]]Case Study: Calico Cats+</html>Case Study: Calico Cats
  
   * Calico cats female bcuz heterozygotes inherit two X-linked alleles for hair color → some cells will express red and other black color   * Calico cats female bcuz heterozygotes inherit two X-linked alleles for hair color → some cells will express red and other black color
Line 2571: Line 2571:
  
   * Occurs during gamete formation & results in one allele silenced thru methylation (not expressed in offspring)   * Occurs during gamete formation & results in one allele silenced thru methylation (not expressed in offspring)
-    * Reversed in gonads during meiosis [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/FlPgo4_y33Gw3XQHZIw9Zav9MSD9oMVTUVfYSBt-bUIaKOPY_8BhRQPrlvtmpsgc6rI7nVMVGX4SP5GsOAN8l06oYHqet3dkSNx7Uu37tSGdMwRsvMDepM1etABEjh0GXKJ6cN3cOnePpTfCUU3MXg|<html>+    * Reversed in gonads during meiosis https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/FlPgo4_y33Gw3XQHZIw9Zav9MSD9oMVTUVfYSBt-bUIaKOPY_8BhRQPrlvtmpsgc6rI7nVMVGX4SP5GsOAN8l06oYHqet3dkSNx7Uu37tSGdMwRsvMDepM1etABEjh0GXKJ6cN3cOnePpTfCUU3MXg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/FlPgo4_y33Gw3XQHZIw9Zav9MSD9oMVTUVfYSBt-bUIaKOPY_8BhRQPrlvtmpsgc6rI7nVMVGX4SP5GsOAN8l06oYHqet3dkSNx7Uu37tSGdMwRsvMDepM1etABEjh0GXKJ6cN3cOnePpTfCUU3MXg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/FlPgo4_y33Gw3XQHZIw9Zav9MSD9oMVTUVfYSBt-bUIaKOPY_8BhRQPrlvtmpsgc6rI7nVMVGX4SP5GsOAN8l06oYHqet3dkSNx7Uu37tSGdMwRsvMDepM1etABEjh0GXKJ6cN3cOnePpTfCUU3MXg" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
 Inheritance of Organelle Genes Inheritance of Organelle Genes
Line 2614: Line 2614:
 Packing of Eukaryotic DNA: Packing of Eukaryotic DNA:
  
-  * DNA usually so densely packed that it’s largely inaccessible to the replication machinery [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_13|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_13.png}}]] +  * DNA usually so densely packed that it’s largely inaccessible to the replication machinery Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_13|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_13.png}} 
     * Acts as a way of regulating gene expression     * Acts as a way of regulating gene expression
  
Line 2621: Line 2621:
   * Heterochromatic: more dense   * Heterochromatic: more dense
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_14|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_14.png}}]]  * Histones: proteins that pack chromatin in the nucleus of eukaryotes & condense into chromosomes; chemical modifications to histones change chromatic organization.+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_14|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_14.png}}  * Histones: proteins that pack chromatin in the nucleus of eukaryotes & condense into chromosomes; chemical modifications to histones change chromatic organization.
     * Bind tightly to DNA bcuz histones amino acids are (+) charged and DNA is (-)     * Bind tightly to DNA bcuz histones amino acids are (+) charged and DNA is (-)
  
Line 2670: Line 2670:
 “Semiconservative” “Semiconservative”
  
-  * Before duplication, hydrogen bonds between bases are broken → double strands unwind and separate into single strands → each strand serves as a template for new, complementary strand → replicated DNA consists of a single strand of old DNA (template strand) and a single strand of new replicated DNA (complementary strand) [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RvCWn1GzvXNoLgLmSix-34Z9KZc1mcnWTePbA9BHLQB5PgK4kyqZiqBb7HUvcPmKtlCNTB9y-vtSF5PhKxUi9OThGGmPanj6Fhm27A9Uxvd4M6GlREnoiHAb28do-A5OkskLzR2Tk48DOsltQZEspQ|<html>+  * Before duplication, hydrogen bonds between bases are broken → double strands unwind and separate into single strands → each strand serves as a template for new, complementary strand → replicated DNA consists of a single strand of old DNA (template strand) and a single strand of new replicated DNA (complementary strand) https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RvCWn1GzvXNoLgLmSix-34Z9KZc1mcnWTePbA9BHLQB5PgK4kyqZiqBb7HUvcPmKtlCNTB9y-vtSF5PhKxUi9OThGGmPanj6Fhm27A9Uxvd4M6GlREnoiHAb28do-A5OkskLzR2Tk48DOsltQZEspQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RvCWn1GzvXNoLgLmSix-34Z9KZc1mcnWTePbA9BHLQB5PgK4kyqZiqBb7HUvcPmKtlCNTB9y-vtSF5PhKxUi9OThGGmPanj6Fhm27A9Uxvd4M6GlREnoiHAb28do-A5OkskLzR2Tk48DOsltQZEspQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/RvCWn1GzvXNoLgLmSix-34Z9KZc1mcnWTePbA9BHLQB5PgK4kyqZiqBb7HUvcPmKtlCNTB9y-vtSF5PhKxUi9OThGGmPanj6Fhm27A9Uxvd4M6GlREnoiHAb28do-A5OkskLzR2Tk48DOsltQZEspQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * This ensures that the DNA replication is identical.     * This ensures that the DNA replication is identical.
  
Line 2709: Line 2709:
   - Lagging Strand: For the 5’ → 3’ template strand, replication occurs discontinuously as DNA polymerase moves away from the uncoiling replication fork   - Lagging Strand: For the 5’ → 3’ template strand, replication occurs discontinuously as DNA polymerase moves away from the uncoiling replication fork
     * This is bcuz it can assemble nucleotides only as it moves in 5’ → 3’ direction; takes more time to assemble     * This is bcuz it can assemble nucleotides only as it moves in 5’ → 3’ direction; takes more time to assemble
-  - [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/TtET1WWg-NCgqb20h6jXmK591ZPns9QR7N9xLvxj-PxHEgdml3vPrZKSt4TjQLw27JNnbVVh-p1a56LsvFimh4kahIKOcPEe_A_l-UqkLJnMep3t8NfG-VP6929O0mBqnRhYXT5_otKUX8CR6dBmqQ|<html>+  - https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/TtET1WWg-NCgqb20h6jXmK591ZPns9QR7N9xLvxj-PxHEgdml3vPrZKSt4TjQLw27JNnbVVh-p1a56LsvFimh4kahIKOcPEe_A_l-UqkLJnMep3t8NfG-VP6929O0mBqnRhYXT5_otKUX8CR6dBmqQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/TtET1WWg-NCgqb20h6jXmK591ZPns9QR7N9xLvxj-PxHEgdml3vPrZKSt4TjQLw27JNnbVVh-p1a56LsvFimh4kahIKOcPEe_A_l-UqkLJnMep3t8NfG-VP6929O0mBqnRhYXT5_otKUX8CR6dBmqQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/TtET1WWg-NCgqb20h6jXmK591ZPns9QR7N9xLvxj-PxHEgdml3vPrZKSt4TjQLw27JNnbVVh-p1a56LsvFimh4kahIKOcPEe_A_l-UqkLJnMep3t8NfG-VP6929O0mBqnRhYXT5_otKUX8CR6dBmqQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * After each complementary segment is assembled & DNA pol III reaches next RNA primer it must return back to the replication fork to begin assembling the next segments     * After each complementary segment is assembled & DNA pol III reaches next RNA primer it must return back to the replication fork to begin assembling the next segments
       * Okazaki fragments: Short segments of complementary DNA; have 5' RNA nucleotides & DNA nucleotides 3'       * Okazaki fragments: Short segments of complementary DNA; have 5' RNA nucleotides & DNA nucleotides 3'
Line 2731: Line 2731:
   * Result: DNA loss → shorter and shorter DNA molecules with uneven ends → can trigger apoptosis   * Result: DNA loss → shorter and shorter DNA molecules with uneven ends → can trigger apoptosis
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_15|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_15.png}}]]  * To solve this problem telomerase attaches to the end of the template strand and extends template by adding telomeres+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_15|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_15.png}}  * To solve this problem telomerase attaches to the end of the template strand and extends template by adding telomeres
  
   * Telomeres: noncoding, special DNA sequence, 5’-TTAGGG-3   * Telomeres: noncoding, special DNA sequence, 5’-TTAGGG-3
Line 2743: Line 2743:
   * DNA replication error low bcuz of base pairings and DNA polymerase but not perfect so cells have mechanisms to repair errors   * DNA replication error low bcuz of base pairings and DNA polymerase but not perfect so cells have mechanisms to repair errors
  
-  * w/o mechanisms → accumulate cancer-causing errors [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/XNl68oCXOxY5yu9NmbaRjMzsR7BjzxBnKz8mZA0FOH4tElbogxTgYdNieMaK2zB_3NyZaoHS25evwSBjVS8aS6_6iDQKzixsM4a2XrDzqSveN5VvMryVMppVPfO5ka9eKtDb15k59LGTGmC1vO8zcA|<html>+  * w/o mechanisms → accumulate cancer-causing errors https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/XNl68oCXOxY5yu9NmbaRjMzsR7BjzxBnKz8mZA0FOH4tElbogxTgYdNieMaK2zB_3NyZaoHS25evwSBjVS8aS6_6iDQKzixsM4a2XrDzqSveN5VvMryVMppVPfO5ka9eKtDb15k59LGTGmC1vO8zcA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/XNl68oCXOxY5yu9NmbaRjMzsR7BjzxBnKz8mZA0FOH4tElbogxTgYdNieMaK2zB_3NyZaoHS25evwSBjVS8aS6_6iDQKzixsM4a2XrDzqSveN5VvMryVMppVPfO5ka9eKtDb15k59LGTGmC1vO8zcA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/XNl68oCXOxY5yu9NmbaRjMzsR7BjzxBnKz8mZA0FOH4tElbogxTgYdNieMaK2zB_3NyZaoHS25evwSBjVS8aS6_6iDQKzixsM4a2XrDzqSveN5VvMryVMppVPfO5ka9eKtDb15k59LGTGmC1vO8zcA" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   - Proofreading: Polymerase proofreads newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides with the correct ones   - Proofreading: Polymerase proofreads newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides with the correct ones
Line 2765: Line 2765:
 ---- ----
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_16|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_16.png}}]]Leading Strand+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_16|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_16.png}}Leading Strand
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_17|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_17.png}}]]Lagging Strand+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_17|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_17.png}}Lagging Strand
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_18|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_18.png}}]]+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_18|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_18.png}}
  
 =====Protein Synthesis===== =====Protein Synthesis=====
Line 2830: Line 2830:
     * Provides stability and controls movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope     * Provides stability and controls movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope
     * At 3’ end of the gene, there is a poly-A signal sequence at the last exon of the gene     * At 3’ end of the gene, there is a poly-A signal sequence at the last exon of the gene
-      * It is transcribed into an RNA sequence that signals where the transcript is cleaved and the poly-A-tail is added [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/C1Jxx_GMSEgcWXBd5qGpI6KYEsGh5DVcf-ue_4CxinQ5Dmb8WIT4PIOw630YimeQJfsl0H7as7T0YT3H37F6xTOVMwLLxzLOZmYyLfuV3qe7T-CoddRbmC4TgUhjJST3iF-c_WnVt-uOfKlAnJiY9Q|<html>+      * It is transcribed into an RNA sequence that signals where the transcript is cleaved and the poly-A-tail is added https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/C1Jxx_GMSEgcWXBd5qGpI6KYEsGh5DVcf-ue_4CxinQ5Dmb8WIT4PIOw630YimeQJfsl0H7as7T0YT3H37F6xTOVMwLLxzLOZmYyLfuV3qe7T-CoddRbmC4TgUhjJST3iF-c_WnVt-uOfKlAnJiY9Q|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/C1Jxx_GMSEgcWXBd5qGpI6KYEsGh5DVcf-ue_4CxinQ5Dmb8WIT4PIOw630YimeQJfsl0H7as7T0YT3H37F6xTOVMwLLxzLOZmYyLfuV3qe7T-CoddRbmC4TgUhjJST3iF-c_WnVt-uOfKlAnJiY9Q" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/C1Jxx_GMSEgcWXBd5qGpI6KYEsGh5DVcf-ue_4CxinQ5Dmb8WIT4PIOw630YimeQJfsl0H7as7T0YT3H37F6xTOVMwLLxzLOZmYyLfuV3qe7T-CoddRbmC4TgUhjJST3iF-c_WnVt-uOfKlAnJiY9Q" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   - RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA   - RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA
Line 2843: Line 2843:
   - Alternative Splicing: Selective excision of introns and retention of exons → allows diff mRNAs to be generated from same RNA transcript → each code for diff protein product of diff size   - Alternative Splicing: Selective excision of introns and retention of exons → allows diff mRNAs to be generated from same RNA transcript → each code for diff protein product of diff size
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_19|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_19.png}}]]  * So single gene can code for proteins that are specific to cell type & developmental stage+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_19|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_19.png}}  * So single gene can code for proteins that are specific to cell type & developmental stage
  
   * Often diff exon combinations code for diff subunits (4th) of same protein   * Often diff exon combinations code for diff subunits (4th) of same protein
Line 2871: Line 2871:
     * E site (exit): in the third position, tRNA and polypeptide exit ribosome     * E site (exit): in the third position, tRNA and polypeptide exit ribosome
  
-  - Wobble: rules for base pairing between the third base of a codon and tRNA is flexible [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/cmOVzlWnl1-AiIjhk6UqoOrwckCQno8y64SrnyqIAut-LB65rE8Cu7y9SgzwWodpGa1r4bKcg9grIbstC_0ZH7nW66E1Oenb-HoEsHlJ2gpZjaqSDXy2_BHujctUEkGM5KQ0a494CNrvtNe4Fq3KTQ|<html>+  - Wobble: rules for base pairing between the third base of a codon and tRNA is flexible https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/cmOVzlWnl1-AiIjhk6UqoOrwckCQno8y64SrnyqIAut-LB65rE8Cu7y9SgzwWodpGa1r4bKcg9grIbstC_0ZH7nW66E1Oenb-HoEsHlJ2gpZjaqSDXy2_BHujctUEkGM5KQ0a494CNrvtNe4Fq3KTQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/cmOVzlWnl1-AiIjhk6UqoOrwckCQno8y64SrnyqIAut-LB65rE8Cu7y9SgzwWodpGa1r4bKcg9grIbstC_0ZH7nW66E1Oenb-HoEsHlJ2gpZjaqSDXy2_BHujctUEkGM5KQ0a494CNrvtNe4Fq3KTQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/cmOVzlWnl1-AiIjhk6UqoOrwckCQno8y64SrnyqIAut-LB65rE8Cu7y9SgzwWodpGa1r4bKcg9grIbstC_0ZH7nW66E1Oenb-HoEsHlJ2gpZjaqSDXy2_BHujctUEkGM5KQ0a494CNrvtNe4Fq3KTQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * So there are fewer tRNAs than possible amino acid codons     * So there are fewer tRNAs than possible amino acid codons
  
Line 2888: Line 2888:
     * Large ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA with the tRNA → ribosome fully assembled with tRNA occupying the P site     * Large ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA with the tRNA → ribosome fully assembled with tRNA occupying the P site
  
-  - Elongation: continues as each tRNA delivers an amino acid one by one according to mRNA sequence [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_20|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_20.png}}]] +  - Elongation: continues as each tRNA delivers an amino acid one by one according to mRNA sequence Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_20|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_20.png}} 
     * A newly arriving tRNA attaches to the first binding site (A site)     * A newly arriving tRNA attaches to the first binding site (A site)
     * rRNA molecule of the large ribosomal subunit catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the carboxyl end of the growing polypeptide in the P site and the amino group of the new amino acid in the A site     * rRNA molecule of the large ribosomal subunit catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the carboxyl end of the growing polypeptide in the P site and the amino group of the new amino acid in the A site
Line 2936: Line 2936:
 =====Gene Regulation: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic===== =====Gene Regulation: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic=====
  
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_21|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_21.png}}]]Big Idea: How can Two Cells With Same Genome Function Differently+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_21|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_21.png}}Big Idea: How can Two Cells With Same Genome Function Differently
  
   * Cells function differently because they express a unique combination of genes because have they have diff specific transcription factors which activate some genes while suppressing others   * Cells function differently because they express a unique combination of genes because have they have diff specific transcription factors which activate some genes while suppressing others
Line 2968: Line 2968:
         * Positive regulation because they must be active in order for transcription to occur         * Positive regulation because they must be active in order for transcription to occur
     - Corepressor: small molecule that binds to and activates a repressor protein to switch an operon off     - Corepressor: small molecule that binds to and activates a repressor protein to switch an operon off
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_22|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_22.png}}]] Types of Regulation Negative Regulation: Repressible and Inducible Operons +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_22|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_22.png}} Types of Regulation Negative Regulation: Repressible and Inducible Operons 
     * Repressible operon: transcription usually on but can be inhibited when repressor binds to it     * Repressible operon: transcription usually on but can be inhibited when repressor binds to it
     * Inducible Operon: transcription usually off but can be turned on when inducer binds to and inactivates repressor protein     * Inducible Operon: transcription usually off but can be turned on when inducer binds to and inactivates repressor protein
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_23|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_23.png}}]] +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_23|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_23.png}} 
     * Both involve negative gene regulation bcuz operons are switched off by active form of repressor protein     * Both involve negative gene regulation bcuz operons are switched off by active form of repressor protein
     * In general repressible operons are associated with genes that regulate anabolic pathways while inducible operons are associated with catabolic pathways.     * In general repressible operons are associated with genes that regulate anabolic pathways while inducible operons are associated with catabolic pathways.
Line 3002: Line 3002:
     * Operons not used in eukaryotes     * Operons not used in eukaryotes
     * Genes co-expressed are scattered over different chromosomes and coordinate gene expression & metabolic activity depends on every gene having same transcription factors and combination of control elements     * Genes co-expressed are scattered over different chromosomes and coordinate gene expression & metabolic activity depends on every gene having same transcription factors and combination of control elements
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_24|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_24.png}}]] +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_24|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_24.png}} 
     * Transcription factors in nucleus bind to control elements → promote simultaneous transcription of genes     * Transcription factors in nucleus bind to control elements → promote simultaneous transcription of genes
     * Coordinate gene regulation often occurs in response to chemical signals from outside the cell, either steroid or protein hormones that activate transcription factors     * Coordinate gene regulation often occurs in response to chemical signals from outside the cell, either steroid or protein hormones that activate transcription factors
Line 3027: Line 3027:
       * PiRNA: reestablishes methylation patterns during gamete formation and block expression of some transposons → induce the formation of heterochromatin → block transcription       * PiRNA: reestablishes methylation patterns during gamete formation and block expression of some transposons → induce the formation of heterochromatin → block transcription
       * Dicer: Enzyme that trims small double-stranded RNAs into molecules that can block translation.       * Dicer: Enzyme that trims small double-stranded RNAs into molecules that can block translation.
-    - [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_25|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_25.png}}]] +    - Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_25|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_25.png}} 
       * MicroRNAs (miRNAs): Functions in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression.       * MicroRNAs (miRNAs): Functions in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression.
         * Degrades mRNA if bases are completely complementary, If the match is less than complete, then translation is blocked         * Degrades mRNA if bases are completely complementary, If the match is less than complete, then translation is blocked
Line 3041: Line 3041:
     * Can affect gene expression through reversible modifications such as…     * Can affect gene expression through reversible modifications such as…
       * Histone acetylation, DNA methylation, genomic imprinting, X-inactivation       * Histone acetylation, DNA methylation, genomic imprinting, X-inactivation
-  * Regulation of Chromatin Structures [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_26|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_26.png}}]] +  * Regulation of Chromatin Structures Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_26|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_26.png}} 
     * Histone modification: change in the organization of histone proteins with DNA.     * Histone modification: change in the organization of histone proteins with DNA.
     * Access to DNA for transcription can be affected by..     * Access to DNA for transcription can be affected by..
Line 3068: Line 3068:
     - Bind to enhancers and block activators     - Bind to enhancers and block activators
     - Silencing: bind to chromatin structure and remove acetyl     - Silencing: bind to chromatin structure and remove acetyl
-  * The Steps of Regulation of Transcription & Transcription Initiation Complex [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_27|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_27.png}}]] +  * The Steps of Regulation of Transcription & Transcription Initiation Complex Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_27|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_27.png}} 
     - Enhancers bind to activator     - Enhancers bind to activator
     - Since enhancer can be far from gene, a DNA-bending protein enables activators to bind to mediator proteins and general transcription factors at the promoter     - Since enhancer can be far from gene, a DNA-bending protein enables activators to bind to mediator proteins and general transcription factors at the promoter
Line 3102: Line 3102:
          
 Stem Cells: unspecialized cells during early stage of embryonic development that can reproduce indefinitely and differentiate (become any) into specialized cells Stem Cells: unspecialized cells during early stage of embryonic development that can reproduce indefinitely and differentiate (become any) into specialized cells
-[[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_28|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_28.png}}]]+Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_28|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_28.png}}
   * But as development continues → cells differentiate & become specialized → cell divisions make more specialized cells   * But as development continues → cells differentiate & become specialized → cell divisions make more specialized cells
 * Cells become specialized because transcription factors activate some genes while suppressing others * Cells become specialized because transcription factors activate some genes while suppressing others
Line 3197: Line 3197:
         * Human insulin gene cloning: insulin gene is inserted into bacteria; bacteria multiply and reproduce human insulin protein for use in treating diabetes         * Human insulin gene cloning: insulin gene is inserted into bacteria; bacteria multiply and reproduce human insulin protein for use in treating diabetes
 ====Gel Electrophoresis and DNA Fingerprinting====  ====Gel Electrophoresis and DNA Fingerprinting==== 
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/QI-JIPiZly-gmvSk3mWeUetRbV1Qp1-FFn77jDQTItNiW_g9Q-grbpFNE8APXLGfI_M-LzfyFvpUgBDMFykkrAvkdBBB5WtoI5ZzxeU2bfHFpa9yoKK-qu2blGV03CJCM_VMTgJUS_Bl7frF5l0NaQ|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/QI-JIPiZly-gmvSk3mWeUetRbV1Qp1-FFn77jDQTItNiW_g9Q-grbpFNE8APXLGfI_M-LzfyFvpUgBDMFykkrAvkdBBB5WtoI5ZzxeU2bfHFpa9yoKK-qu2blGV03CJCM_VMTgJUS_Bl7frF5l0NaQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/QI-JIPiZly-gmvSk3mWeUetRbV1Qp1-FFn77jDQTItNiW_g9Q-grbpFNE8APXLGfI_M-LzfyFvpUgBDMFykkrAvkdBBB5WtoI5ZzxeU2bfHFpa9yoKK-qu2blGV03CJCM_VMTgJUS_Bl7frF5l0NaQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/QI-JIPiZly-gmvSk3mWeUetRbV1Qp1-FFn77jDQTItNiW_g9Q-grbpFNE8APXLGfI_M-LzfyFvpUgBDMFykkrAvkdBBB5WtoI5ZzxeU2bfHFpa9yoKK-qu2blGV03CJCM_VMTgJUS_Bl7frF5l0NaQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
   * Gel Electrophoresis: a procedure that separates restriction fragments   * Gel Electrophoresis: a procedure that separates restriction fragments
   - DNA fragments of diff lengths are separated as they diffuse thru a gelatinous material under influence of an electrical field   - DNA fragments of diff lengths are separated as they diffuse thru a gelatinous material under influence of an electrical field
Line 3321: Line 3321:
     * A parent with balanced translocation has chance to produce offspring with deletion or duplication     * A parent with balanced translocation has chance to produce offspring with deletion or duplication
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/fIVBaHLN-0-0u3Qeie3rYXTxPWdy57y4qmm3MVtgyTtCwVi3HUFVmiP23hb2RyktosGpNZ_-FtI15jiFvwcJ1tJ4DA51JnIjvh_BfRX9DRhI7R8CnjauGSL8geQkYiylFoRcEbO0ESRUHOvEpn_tNQ|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/fIVBaHLN-0-0u3Qeie3rYXTxPWdy57y4qmm3MVtgyTtCwVi3HUFVmiP23hb2RyktosGpNZ_-FtI15jiFvwcJ1tJ4DA51JnIjvh_BfRX9DRhI7R8CnjauGSL8geQkYiylFoRcEbO0ESRUHOvEpn_tNQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/fIVBaHLN-0-0u3Qeie3rYXTxPWdy57y4qmm3MVtgyTtCwVi3HUFVmiP23hb2RyktosGpNZ_-FtI15jiFvwcJ1tJ4DA51JnIjvh_BfRX9DRhI7R8CnjauGSL8geQkYiylFoRcEbO0ESRUHOvEpn_tNQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/fIVBaHLN-0-0u3Qeie3rYXTxPWdy57y4qmm3MVtgyTtCwVi3HUFVmiP23hb2RyktosGpNZ_-FtI15jiFvwcJ1tJ4DA51JnIjvh_BfRX9DRhI7R8CnjauGSL8geQkYiylFoRcEbO0ESRUHOvEpn_tNQ" alt="">
-</html>]]Notes+</html>Notes
  
   * Random mutations = source of new alleles = new phenotypes   * Random mutations = source of new alleles = new phenotypes
Line 3361: Line 3361:
 Transfer and Sharing of DNA: Prokaryotes Vs. Eukaryotes Transfer and Sharing of DNA: Prokaryotes Vs. Eukaryotes
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/o-Ouk4M64uSRy97ehKQS48RCpg0i37TB7EO8I6MtJZIhZXZAxjCcoGPw9LbLqe242WvhDYIWAmr7Wxd3m2M2dXBmf75oHIWp6ITRMQIGsQ_SmFpzD0rLpVf_oHL8flfTlmuMwwhG5zffvToFiq3tYQ|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/o-Ouk4M64uSRy97ehKQS48RCpg0i37TB7EO8I6MtJZIhZXZAxjCcoGPw9LbLqe242WvhDYIWAmr7Wxd3m2M2dXBmf75oHIWp6ITRMQIGsQ_SmFpzD0rLpVf_oHL8flfTlmuMwwhG5zffvToFiq3tYQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/o-Ouk4M64uSRy97ehKQS48RCpg0i37TB7EO8I6MtJZIhZXZAxjCcoGPw9LbLqe242WvhDYIWAmr7Wxd3m2M2dXBmf75oHIWp6ITRMQIGsQ_SmFpzD0rLpVf_oHL8flfTlmuMwwhG5zffvToFiq3tYQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/o-Ouk4M64uSRy97ehKQS48RCpg0i37TB7EO8I6MtJZIhZXZAxjCcoGPw9LbLqe242WvhDYIWAmr7Wxd3m2M2dXBmf75oHIWp6ITRMQIGsQ_SmFpzD0rLpVf_oHL8flfTlmuMwwhG5zffvToFiq3tYQ" alt="">
-</html>]]Bacteria: 3 Methods of Transferring DNA+</html>Bacteria: 3 Methods of Transferring DNA
  
   - Transduction   - Transduction
Line 3369: Line 3369:
   * Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) move DNA from one bacterium to another "by accident."   * Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) move DNA from one bacterium to another "by accident."
  
-  - Transformation [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/rfjo1I7vqBppXqW8kT0FldG_YGQlu4_sIdAfFunUJN_avM3t9htBW2e5EJQVAnLhSQiiFBCbz_DLcoBWzphEPD3muuVpGkSf6orkq7KfJZ-ReH4AGajSgAOB1dmKBaakwXbHq6R1_HtqKnybHk_CrA|<html>+  - Transformation https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/rfjo1I7vqBppXqW8kT0FldG_YGQlu4_sIdAfFunUJN_avM3t9htBW2e5EJQVAnLhSQiiFBCbz_DLcoBWzphEPD3muuVpGkSf6orkq7KfJZ-ReH4AGajSgAOB1dmKBaakwXbHq6R1_HtqKnybHk_CrA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/rfjo1I7vqBppXqW8kT0FldG_YGQlu4_sIdAfFunUJN_avM3t9htBW2e5EJQVAnLhSQiiFBCbz_DLcoBWzphEPD3muuVpGkSf6orkq7KfJZ-ReH4AGajSgAOB1dmKBaakwXbHq6R1_HtqKnybHk_CrA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/rfjo1I7vqBppXqW8kT0FldG_YGQlu4_sIdAfFunUJN_avM3t9htBW2e5EJQVAnLhSQiiFBCbz_DLcoBWzphEPD3muuVpGkSf6orkq7KfJZ-ReH4AGajSgAOB1dmKBaakwXbHq6R1_HtqKnybHk_CrA" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   * Bacteria takes in DNA from its environment,   * Bacteria takes in DNA from its environment,
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   - Conjugation   - Conjugation
  
-  * DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another. [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/c9sRo-qBm34jQnm7gDyqi6y-brJVzOTkJ4inWzTHJfiKuodSUIhVWvzdKVfsnuj9fhL7bbysEV1Gp6qqXxmyT2olwP7RYWygyyX0OAZ9MGnaxwSyeloiRSRvUx6I7QC3XG5-AHHnJI9-3ep87480Wg|<html>+  * DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another. https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/c9sRo-qBm34jQnm7gDyqi6y-brJVzOTkJ4inWzTHJfiKuodSUIhVWvzdKVfsnuj9fhL7bbysEV1Gp6qqXxmyT2olwP7RYWygyyX0OAZ9MGnaxwSyeloiRSRvUx6I7QC3XG5-AHHnJI9-3ep87480Wg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/c9sRo-qBm34jQnm7gDyqi6y-brJVzOTkJ4inWzTHJfiKuodSUIhVWvzdKVfsnuj9fhL7bbysEV1Gp6qqXxmyT2olwP7RYWygyyX0OAZ9MGnaxwSyeloiRSRvUx6I7QC3XG5-AHHnJI9-3ep87480Wg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/c9sRo-qBm34jQnm7gDyqi6y-brJVzOTkJ4inWzTHJfiKuodSUIhVWvzdKVfsnuj9fhL7bbysEV1Gp6qqXxmyT2olwP7RYWygyyX0OAZ9MGnaxwSyeloiRSRvUx6I7QC3XG5-AHHnJI9-3ep87480Wg" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
  
   * Donor cell (F+) uses pilus to transfer DNA from its cell to recipient cell (F-) → recipient becomes donor   * Donor cell (F+) uses pilus to transfer DNA from its cell to recipient cell (F-) → recipient becomes donor
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 Virus Structure Virus Structure
  
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/spN336V0HMmovdccgZ05exqiu4ny9RFeELYggAUQ1LjQPxPv6-Ih_s1cZ4ZdJYg8HayEzRPgm-aqLIgj1Gxm4vkbmyll9-umb2vqDhmg8aXmSgC4OWg7bJ7KsCoNSTh75gHvW95b_fid8XO3a04W_w|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/spN336V0HMmovdccgZ05exqiu4ny9RFeELYggAUQ1LjQPxPv6-Ih_s1cZ4ZdJYg8HayEzRPgm-aqLIgj1Gxm4vkbmyll9-umb2vqDhmg8aXmSgC4OWg7bJ7KsCoNSTh75gHvW95b_fid8XO3a04W_w|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/spN336V0HMmovdccgZ05exqiu4ny9RFeELYggAUQ1LjQPxPv6-Ih_s1cZ4ZdJYg8HayEzRPgm-aqLIgj1Gxm4vkbmyll9-umb2vqDhmg8aXmSgC4OWg7bJ7KsCoNSTh75gHvW95b_fid8XO3a04W_w" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/spN336V0HMmovdccgZ05exqiu4ny9RFeELYggAUQ1LjQPxPv6-Ih_s1cZ4ZdJYg8HayEzRPgm-aqLIgj1Gxm4vkbmyll9-umb2vqDhmg8aXmSgC4OWg7bJ7KsCoNSTh75gHvW95b_fid8XO3a04W_w" alt="">
-</html>]]  - Nucleic Acid: either RNA or DNA which contains viruses information to make progeny+</html>  - Nucleic Acid: either RNA or DNA which contains viruses information to make progeny
     * DNA/RNA may be double-stranded or single-stranded     * DNA/RNA may be double-stranded or single-stranded
  
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   * Stays dormant until there are optimal conditions, stress, or external environment stimulus (radiation or chemicals) → releases viruses to create an infection in the lytic cycle   * Stays dormant until there are optimal conditions, stress, or external environment stimulus (radiation or chemicals) → releases viruses to create an infection in the lytic cycle
     * So cycle technically in between phase     * So cycle technically in between phase
-  * [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_29|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_29.png}}]] +  * Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_29|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_29.png}} 
 RETROVIRUS SYNTHESIS: RETROVIRUS SYNTHESIS:
  
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       * Occurs as result of nondisjunction of all chromosomes during meiosis       * Occurs as result of nondisjunction of all chromosomes during meiosis
         * Unlike animals, plants more tolerant to changes in chromosome sets         * Unlike animals, plants more tolerant to changes in chromosome sets
-      * [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mC8jsW3mhio7rCxAcMdXE9W8k9_PGj18V83LGgw6TfcNM7RFDqefVWAlOTL41FBJNY09-UYLfx9ptJukLh83uMVAyCpAdl9cCFiXvUz2fArE9Rzk-X0ajZbm8xo66z01DAzycE1HshpIW7NuTesLqg|<html>+      * https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mC8jsW3mhio7rCxAcMdXE9W8k9_PGj18V83LGgw6TfcNM7RFDqefVWAlOTL41FBJNY09-UYLfx9ptJukLh83uMVAyCpAdl9cCFiXvUz2fArE9Rzk-X0ajZbm8xo66z01DAzycE1HshpIW7NuTesLqg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mC8jsW3mhio7rCxAcMdXE9W8k9_PGj18V83LGgw6TfcNM7RFDqefVWAlOTL41FBJNY09-UYLfx9ptJukLh83uMVAyCpAdl9cCFiXvUz2fArE9Rzk-X0ajZbm8xo66z01DAzycE1HshpIW7NuTesLqg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/mC8jsW3mhio7rCxAcMdXE9W8k9_PGj18V83LGgw6TfcNM7RFDqefVWAlOTL41FBJNY09-UYLfx9ptJukLh83uMVAyCpAdl9cCFiXvUz2fArE9Rzk-X0ajZbm8xo66z01DAzycE1HshpIW7NuTesLqg" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
       * Ex: Tetraploid plant produces gamete (2n) that fuses with normal gamete from same species (n) → nonviable/infertile triploid plant       * Ex: Tetraploid plant produces gamete (2n) that fuses with normal gamete from same species (n) → nonviable/infertile triploid plant
         * Bcuz tetraploid & diploid species cannot produce viable offspring = diff species         * Bcuz tetraploid & diploid species cannot produce viable offspring = diff species
           * Thus speciation can occur over single generation           * Thus speciation can occur over single generation
-    - Hybridization: two different species mate and produce offspring along geographic barrier called hybrid zone [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/2Pzz5IT73e3KpsUsVLKgIj7ln6r_m0h0BP65alUig92w7RBK2Q2K4MWkiAg91fDaf0oFpvW7J2UkxWICgZcJ4ugummabNwOj1A7niI24OElVHZK4a9il8cgta8yY8fdUMCGMTnIioWxgY7wQDv8vPA|<html>+    - Hybridization: two different species mate and produce offspring along geographic barrier called hybrid zone https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/2Pzz5IT73e3KpsUsVLKgIj7ln6r_m0h0BP65alUig92w7RBK2Q2K4MWkiAg91fDaf0oFpvW7J2UkxWICgZcJ4ugummabNwOj1A7niI24OElVHZK4a9il8cgta8yY8fdUMCGMTnIioWxgY7wQDv8vPA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/2Pzz5IT73e3KpsUsVLKgIj7ln6r_m0h0BP65alUig92w7RBK2Q2K4MWkiAg91fDaf0oFpvW7J2UkxWICgZcJ4ugummabNwOj1A7niI24OElVHZK4a9il8cgta8yY8fdUMCGMTnIioWxgY7wQDv8vPA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/2Pzz5IT73e3KpsUsVLKgIj7ln6r_m0h0BP65alUig92w7RBK2Q2K4MWkiAg91fDaf0oFpvW7J2UkxWICgZcJ4ugummabNwOj1A7niI24OElVHZK4a9il8cgta8yY8fdUMCGMTnIioWxgY7wQDv8vPA" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
       * Sometimes genetic variation of hybrids is greater than either parent so hybrid population can evolve adaptations to environmental conditions in hybrid zone beyond parent range       * Sometimes genetic variation of hybrids is greater than either parent so hybrid population can evolve adaptations to environmental conditions in hybrid zone beyond parent range
         * Hybrids become new species when exposed to different selection pressures or can only breed among themselves         * Hybrids become new species when exposed to different selection pressures or can only breed among themselves
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   - Taxonomy: classification of organisms; organisms are classified into categories called taxa Hierarchical Classification    - Taxonomy: classification of organisms; organisms are classified into categories called taxa Hierarchical Classification 
     * Each taxon more inclusive than the other     * Each taxon more inclusive than the other
-    * “Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand” [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/U-dZ8yQXFguTIy2AYtI40u25XaRLtXHwcWpcZW8IHC_5MXxy3lECWU_cttwHUte8WlnsHszJ8kOj2tDQi1bCSyXVvqAQTnrJHmYvqmSFrfHrJIJyrPaHjg7o-FU6GN7HQqtZ_GCmXdU7p17K3zs67Q|<html>+    * “Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand” https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/U-dZ8yQXFguTIy2AYtI40u25XaRLtXHwcWpcZW8IHC_5MXxy3lECWU_cttwHUte8WlnsHszJ8kOj2tDQi1bCSyXVvqAQTnrJHmYvqmSFrfHrJIJyrPaHjg7o-FU6GN7HQqtZ_GCmXdU7p17K3zs67Q|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/U-dZ8yQXFguTIy2AYtI40u25XaRLtXHwcWpcZW8IHC_5MXxy3lECWU_cttwHUte8WlnsHszJ8kOj2tDQi1bCSyXVvqAQTnrJHmYvqmSFrfHrJIJyrPaHjg7o-FU6GN7HQqtZ_GCmXdU7p17K3zs67Q" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/U-dZ8yQXFguTIy2AYtI40u25XaRLtXHwcWpcZW8IHC_5MXxy3lECWU_cttwHUte8WlnsHszJ8kOj2tDQi1bCSyXVvqAQTnrJHmYvqmSFrfHrJIJyrPaHjg7o-FU6GN7HQqtZ_GCmXdU7p17K3zs67Q" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     - Species: group of closely related organisms that can reproduce     - Species: group of closely related organisms that can reproduce
     - Genus: phylogenetically closely related species     - Genus: phylogenetically closely related species
Line 3894: Line 3894:
     * Tree shows pattern of descent, NOT phenotypic similarity     * Tree shows pattern of descent, NOT phenotypic similarity
     * Branch length = estimated amount of evolutionary change or time     * Branch length = estimated amount of evolutionary change or time
-  - Cladistics [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/J8E-WBOpkilaMzUjyd0thN5HX5lEdBe3Umh7DkoAL34ouUFb-XFOaGKjsllTTbKRk4C7V3Z0OcrGpKxiCcA5K1vbFC2zXgAfzkGhgVJAg8rOo2v2eS6aN3VwYhCWFx8rBkzYG3Nr-aBNQfvNa5Rorw|<html>+  - Cladistics https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/J8E-WBOpkilaMzUjyd0thN5HX5lEdBe3Umh7DkoAL34ouUFb-XFOaGKjsllTTbKRk4C7V3Z0OcrGpKxiCcA5K1vbFC2zXgAfzkGhgVJAg8rOo2v2eS6aN3VwYhCWFx8rBkzYG3Nr-aBNQfvNa5Rorw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/J8E-WBOpkilaMzUjyd0thN5HX5lEdBe3Umh7DkoAL34ouUFb-XFOaGKjsllTTbKRk4C7V3Z0OcrGpKxiCcA5K1vbFC2zXgAfzkGhgVJAg8rOo2v2eS6aN3VwYhCWFx8rBkzYG3Nr-aBNQfvNa5Rorw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/J8E-WBOpkilaMzUjyd0thN5HX5lEdBe3Umh7DkoAL34ouUFb-XFOaGKjsllTTbKRk4C7V3Z0OcrGpKxiCcA5K1vbFC2zXgAfzkGhgVJAg8rOo2v2eS6aN3VwYhCWFx8rBkzYG3Nr-aBNQfvNa5Rorw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Uses common ancestry and traits to place species into groups called clades     * Uses common ancestry and traits to place species into groups called clades
       * Clades: ancestral species & all of descendents       * Clades: ancestral species & all of descendents
Line 3905: Line 3905:
     * Outgroup: species closely related but not part of the group we are studying (ingroup)     * Outgroup: species closely related but not part of the group we are studying (ingroup)
       * Is the most divergent (different) and least closely related       * Is the most divergent (different) and least closely related
-    * 1 [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/03J3d1KYL3dEC879aEPpn6h9PMrjhx2qikfVDouEFkNx8JDImp76voqAH43A5spUaFasENqJzBHVvOHVin-b81lkalNccykCVnYLwAh2enYS3Lf5mA0fa0eJtd-3GMbQQkaIOpQ-f4BpIAjpISROHg|<html>+    * 1 https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/03J3d1KYL3dEC879aEPpn6h9PMrjhx2qikfVDouEFkNx8JDImp76voqAH43A5spUaFasENqJzBHVvOHVin-b81lkalNccykCVnYLwAh2enYS3Lf5mA0fa0eJtd-3GMbQQkaIOpQ-f4BpIAjpISROHg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/03J3d1KYL3dEC879aEPpn6h9PMrjhx2qikfVDouEFkNx8JDImp76voqAH43A5spUaFasENqJzBHVvOHVin-b81lkalNccykCVnYLwAh2enYS3Lf5mA0fa0eJtd-3GMbQQkaIOpQ-f4BpIAjpISROHg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/03J3d1KYL3dEC879aEPpn6h9PMrjhx2qikfVDouEFkNx8JDImp76voqAH43A5spUaFasENqJzBHVvOHVin-b81lkalNccykCVnYLwAh2enYS3Lf5mA0fa0eJtd-3GMbQQkaIOpQ-f4BpIAjpISROHg" alt="">
-</html>]] [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/sdooiUd99_5b2qtuR8ENIB2SdZ2Bv3hcTczeHKTXOfxsqLlahBZS-WlevXqTmug0nv5_vcdUHsP94YsIUb4frzjFJj1T78rZV-0fJwvkMQ5VytAYs07K1Ny30YyTZR4Xo8cT-9RqG1Ivae4GoLqOlg|<html>+</html> https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/sdooiUd99_5b2qtuR8ENIB2SdZ2Bv3hcTczeHKTXOfxsqLlahBZS-WlevXqTmug0nv5_vcdUHsP94YsIUb4frzjFJj1T78rZV-0fJwvkMQ5VytAYs07K1Ny30YyTZR4Xo8cT-9RqG1Ivae4GoLqOlg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/sdooiUd99_5b2qtuR8ENIB2SdZ2Bv3hcTczeHKTXOfxsqLlahBZS-WlevXqTmug0nv5_vcdUHsP94YsIUb4frzjFJj1T78rZV-0fJwvkMQ5VytAYs07K1Ny30YyTZR4Xo8cT-9RqG1Ivae4GoLqOlg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/sdooiUd99_5b2qtuR8ENIB2SdZ2Bv3hcTczeHKTXOfxsqLlahBZS-WlevXqTmug0nv5_vcdUHsP94YsIUb4frzjFJj1T78rZV-0fJwvkMQ5VytAYs07K1Ny30YyTZR4Xo8cT-9RqG1Ivae4GoLqOlg" alt="">
-</html>]] [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ga6V9aahWEwE46ufyXa-hyqqxlqLe19AgkpOL7fDhovAeElWGQkbLrHFN-NVE8TWTqItw986pKDwSZ9vpFgJOTK1cRBIvJ9blnEhy3MfL5KPyUpjRoExJY6URRJNq6lMdnf4x-dwF7YFbgUTdFRUGQ|<html>+</html> https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ga6V9aahWEwE46ufyXa-hyqqxlqLe19AgkpOL7fDhovAeElWGQkbLrHFN-NVE8TWTqItw986pKDwSZ9vpFgJOTK1cRBIvJ9blnEhy3MfL5KPyUpjRoExJY6URRJNq6lMdnf4x-dwF7YFbgUTdFRUGQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ga6V9aahWEwE46ufyXa-hyqqxlqLe19AgkpOL7fDhovAeElWGQkbLrHFN-NVE8TWTqItw986pKDwSZ9vpFgJOTK1cRBIvJ9blnEhy3MfL5KPyUpjRoExJY6URRJNq6lMdnf4x-dwF7YFbgUTdFRUGQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Ga6V9aahWEwE46ufyXa-hyqqxlqLe19AgkpOL7fDhovAeElWGQkbLrHFN-NVE8TWTqItw986pKDwSZ9vpFgJOTK1cRBIvJ9blnEhy3MfL5KPyUpjRoExJY6URRJNq6lMdnf4x-dwF7YFbgUTdFRUGQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Node represents species → all three species are descended from it     * Node represents species → all three species are descended from it
   - Types of Clades    - Types of Clades 
Line 3922: Line 3922:
     * Derived: novelty unique to clade     * Derived: novelty unique to clade
       * Can be loss or gain of a characteristic       * Can be loss or gain of a characteristic
-  - [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/3qwOvHEzF-ERhKqPVl84fjE9wzRUBNIr5uveBC5Rp7dIWGINLLA1TFNguhqU-z8k-BpKT5MI7XJhD6-jnJDRQJ-M92JMk-sCrPu9ce5xd94bmj30BujGnPsJ9zt3EErvL4dORd1PkzDiMyqHW8fDLw|<html>+  - https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/3qwOvHEzF-ERhKqPVl84fjE9wzRUBNIr5uveBC5Rp7dIWGINLLA1TFNguhqU-z8k-BpKT5MI7XJhD6-jnJDRQJ-M92JMk-sCrPu9ce5xd94bmj30BujGnPsJ9zt3EErvL4dORd1PkzDiMyqHW8fDLw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/3qwOvHEzF-ERhKqPVl84fjE9wzRUBNIr5uveBC5Rp7dIWGINLLA1TFNguhqU-z8k-BpKT5MI7XJhD6-jnJDRQJ-M92JMk-sCrPu9ce5xd94bmj30BujGnPsJ9zt3EErvL4dORd1PkzDiMyqHW8fDLw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/3qwOvHEzF-ERhKqPVl84fjE9wzRUBNIr5uveBC5Rp7dIWGINLLA1TFNguhqU-z8k-BpKT5MI7XJhD6-jnJDRQJ-M92JMk-sCrPu9ce5xd94bmj30BujGnPsJ9zt3EErvL4dORd1PkzDiMyqHW8fDLw" alt="">
-</html>]] Maximum Parsimony: simplest explanation is usually most correct one +</html> Maximum Parsimony: simplest explanation is usually most correct one 
     * Most parsimonious tree is the one with the less amount of changes     * Most parsimonious tree is the one with the less amount of changes
     * This tree is less parisomus bcuz assumes that jaw evolved twice     * This tree is less parisomus bcuz assumes that jaw evolved twice
Line 4007: Line 4007:
     * Decomposers Obtain energy from dead, decaying matter      * Decomposers Obtain energy from dead, decaying matter 
 ====Domain Bacteria====  ====Domain Bacteria==== 
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/4KGI5F1QB5JtzDk5aOKFIUOtQ5EJCW0hEpFZwDRyfzroZsiAhItlKgKVepFM4ZK2d2iRbr-doZQcmbKSYP3qdROIkAoqErIwp54yQnGr3I4zQOL-3bYspbuLmJQC1wuFkYTPsrlo-kUfKTUNTbba1g|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/4KGI5F1QB5JtzDk5aOKFIUOtQ5EJCW0hEpFZwDRyfzroZsiAhItlKgKVepFM4ZK2d2iRbr-doZQcmbKSYP3qdROIkAoqErIwp54yQnGr3I4zQOL-3bYspbuLmJQC1wuFkYTPsrlo-kUfKTUNTbba1g|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/4KGI5F1QB5JtzDk5aOKFIUOtQ5EJCW0hEpFZwDRyfzroZsiAhItlKgKVepFM4ZK2d2iRbr-doZQcmbKSYP3qdROIkAoqErIwp54yQnGr3I4zQOL-3bYspbuLmJQC1wuFkYTPsrlo-kUfKTUNTbba1g" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/4KGI5F1QB5JtzDk5aOKFIUOtQ5EJCW0hEpFZwDRyfzroZsiAhItlKgKVepFM4ZK2d2iRbr-doZQcmbKSYP3qdROIkAoqErIwp54yQnGr3I4zQOL-3bYspbuLmJQC1wuFkYTPsrlo-kUfKTUNTbba1g" alt="">
-</html>]] Characteristics of Prokaryotes: +</html> Characteristics of Prokaryotes: 
     * Small size and rapid reproduction     * Small size and rapid reproduction
     * High genetic variation → live in diverse environments     * High genetic variation → live in diverse environments
Line 4037: Line 4037:
     * Use flagella     * Use flagella
         * Pro and eu. flagella have diff proteins, molecular composition, and method         * Pro and eu. flagella have diff proteins, molecular composition, and method
-    - [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/B2pdtlM_J9Sxuhpg_cvMorhCDEVb3rp0mFpQHDc9L6SrtzW1rdvfcsSarmmBg0FVsvRMphjnkx4RnH58L9rDUo1RlLl_RNqLoF8dG7M-9itJjHjnHaTIFd98HeBET9b2FA038dYayfwuVsWARcRVuw|<html>+    - https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/B2pdtlM_J9Sxuhpg_cvMorhCDEVb3rp0mFpQHDc9L6SrtzW1rdvfcsSarmmBg0FVsvRMphjnkx4RnH58L9rDUo1RlLl_RNqLoF8dG7M-9itJjHjnHaTIFd98HeBET9b2FA038dYayfwuVsWARcRVuw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/B2pdtlM_J9Sxuhpg_cvMorhCDEVb3rp0mFpQHDc9L6SrtzW1rdvfcsSarmmBg0FVsvRMphjnkx4RnH58L9rDUo1RlLl_RNqLoF8dG7M-9itJjHjnHaTIFd98HeBET9b2FA038dYayfwuVsWARcRVuw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/B2pdtlM_J9Sxuhpg_cvMorhCDEVb3rp0mFpQHDc9L6SrtzW1rdvfcsSarmmBg0FVsvRMphjnkx4RnH58L9rDUo1RlLl_RNqLoF8dG7M-9itJjHjnHaTIFd98HeBET9b2FA038dYayfwuVsWARcRVuw" alt="">
-</html>]] Reproduction: Binary Fission +</html> Reproduction: Binary Fission 
     * Asexual→ no genetic variation     * Asexual→ no genetic variation
     * Rapid reproduction + no proofreading enzymes → high rate of mutation = main method of creating variation for evolution (fast)     * Rapid reproduction + no proofreading enzymes → high rate of mutation = main method of creating variation for evolution (fast)
Line 4336: Line 4336:
     - Freshwater biomes include ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers.     - Freshwater biomes include ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers.
     - Marine biomes include estuaries (where oceans meet rivers), intertidal zones (where oceans meet land), continental shelves (shallow oceans that border continents), coral reefs (masses of corals that reach the ocean surface), and the pelagic ocean (the deep oceans)     - Marine biomes include estuaries (where oceans meet rivers), intertidal zones (where oceans meet land), continental shelves (shallow oceans that border continents), coral reefs (masses of corals that reach the ocean surface), and the pelagic ocean (the deep oceans)
-* Trophic Levels [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zwzo-Hi8sy6hHUkb5R8NapUW-cFUMJALutxR8KZiymSaxc41Bv4pZIBzHbFdsq_AXGdZSmtkPAR9Gtal37LuZcsfdWdtmibOcORK70kv_TB-VJ-amCJX6HXeSsSzT9gz08YzNU9Mvo0jFQQ2EYe-AQ|<html>+* Trophic Levels https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zwzo-Hi8sy6hHUkb5R8NapUW-cFUMJALutxR8KZiymSaxc41Bv4pZIBzHbFdsq_AXGdZSmtkPAR9Gtal37LuZcsfdWdtmibOcORK70kv_TB-VJ-amCJX6HXeSsSzT9gz08YzNU9Mvo0jFQQ2EYe-AQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zwzo-Hi8sy6hHUkb5R8NapUW-cFUMJALutxR8KZiymSaxc41Bv4pZIBzHbFdsq_AXGdZSmtkPAR9Gtal37LuZcsfdWdtmibOcORK70kv_TB-VJ-amCJX6HXeSsSzT9gz08YzNU9Mvo0jFQQ2EYe-AQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/Zwzo-Hi8sy6hHUkb5R8NapUW-cFUMJALutxR8KZiymSaxc41Bv4pZIBzHbFdsq_AXGdZSmtkPAR9Gtal37LuZcsfdWdtmibOcORK70kv_TB-VJ-amCJX6HXeSsSzT9gz08YzNU9Mvo0jFQQ2EYe-AQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Trophic Levels: position organism is in food chain     * Trophic Levels: position organism is in food chain
     * Way of illustrating energy flow and production & utilization of energy     * Way of illustrating energy flow and production & utilization of energy
Line 4376: Line 4376:
 * Ecological Pyramids  * Ecological Pyramids 
     * Used to show relationship between trophic levels     * Used to show relationship between trophic levels
-* [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_30|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_30.png}}]] +* Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_30|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_30.png}} 
     * Tiers represent sizes of trophic levels     * Tiers represent sizes of trophic levels
     * Each represented in terms of energy (A.K.A productivity), biomass, or number of organisms     * Each represented in terms of energy (A.K.A productivity), biomass, or number of organisms
Line 4412: Line 4412:
         * Ex: sunlight can affect number and size of trophic levels         * Ex: sunlight can affect number and size of trophic levels
 * Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling  * Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling 
-    * Chemical Cycling: plants take chemicals from soil & air → chemicals passed to herbivores → decomposers break down dead matter, releasing chemicals back to the soil [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/vQa_TYH4x0q0j-vG6rOD5BzUIoUwLo-b_U9KzUQG3mJTs8WC9rSz47o7w6rTswMkU9XM5iaVgF_1so-P29GZbAoKaiPFbZvENjsqxBC_-1Swa6z2s3fHuS2pruT7ewcuTgMzwBwQ5E1Go7k82i-Mcw|<html>+    * Chemical Cycling: plants take chemicals from soil & air → chemicals passed to herbivores → decomposers break down dead matter, releasing chemicals back to the soil https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/vQa_TYH4x0q0j-vG6rOD5BzUIoUwLo-b_U9KzUQG3mJTs8WC9rSz47o7w6rTswMkU9XM5iaVgF_1so-P29GZbAoKaiPFbZvENjsqxBC_-1Swa6z2s3fHuS2pruT7ewcuTgMzwBwQ5E1Go7k82i-Mcw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/vQa_TYH4x0q0j-vG6rOD5BzUIoUwLo-b_U9KzUQG3mJTs8WC9rSz47o7w6rTswMkU9XM5iaVgF_1so-P29GZbAoKaiPFbZvENjsqxBC_-1Swa6z2s3fHuS2pruT7ewcuTgMzwBwQ5E1Go7k82i-Mcw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/vQa_TYH4x0q0j-vG6rOD5BzUIoUwLo-b_U9KzUQG3mJTs8WC9rSz47o7w6rTswMkU9XM5iaVgF_1so-P29GZbAoKaiPFbZvENjsqxBC_-1Swa6z2s3fHuS2pruT7ewcuTgMzwBwQ5E1Go7k82i-Mcw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Energy Flow: Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight → converted to chemical energy by autotrophs → passed to heterotrophs in the organic compounds of food → dissipated as heat when energy used for work     * Energy Flow: Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight → converted to chemical energy by autotrophs → passed to heterotrophs in the organic compounds of food → dissipated as heat when energy used for work
     * Both energy and chemicals are transformed in ecosystems through photosynthesis and feeding relationships. But unlike chemicals, energy cannot be recycled.     * Both energy and chemicals are transformed in ecosystems through photosynthesis and feeding relationships. But unlike chemicals, energy cannot be recycled.
Line 4487: Line 4487:
     * Ex: Natural disasters, pollution, and extremes of climate     * Ex: Natural disasters, pollution, and extremes of climate
 * Population Growths Equation for Growth of Population  * Population Growths Equation for Growth of Population 
-    - Growth of Populations: [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/T7EyXABbr0Jz3vZ2QGvbMbYDLIhdKVhLl-ae4cD39jSlW9A4ABD6WHT_lA3oTE4m4kVab6SaMlyBZPTCHNQmL7y-AZJYhbADw5-q8Zte2IIpqrcK4z2wPM14ldsoA5i5hGWUX5CnD2ccWe4l5C9KLA|<html>+    - Growth of Populations: https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/T7EyXABbr0Jz3vZ2QGvbMbYDLIhdKVhLl-ae4cD39jSlW9A4ABD6WHT_lA3oTE4m4kVab6SaMlyBZPTCHNQmL7y-AZJYhbADw5-q8Zte2IIpqrcK4z2wPM14ldsoA5i5hGWUX5CnD2ccWe4l5C9KLA|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/T7EyXABbr0Jz3vZ2QGvbMbYDLIhdKVhLl-ae4cD39jSlW9A4ABD6WHT_lA3oTE4m4kVab6SaMlyBZPTCHNQmL7y-AZJYhbADw5-q8Zte2IIpqrcK4z2wPM14ldsoA5i5hGWUX5CnD2ccWe4l5C9KLA" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/T7EyXABbr0Jz3vZ2QGvbMbYDLIhdKVhLl-ae4cD39jSlW9A4ABD6WHT_lA3oTE4m4kVab6SaMlyBZPTCHNQmL7y-AZJYhbADw5-q8Zte2IIpqrcK4z2wPM14ldsoA5i5hGWUX5CnD2ccWe4l5C9KLA" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * R is the reproductive rate (or growth rate), N is the population size, numerator is net increase in individuals     * R is the reproductive rate (or growth rate), N is the population size, numerator is net increase in individuals
     * When deaths exceed births, r will be negative and population size will decrease     * When deaths exceed births, r will be negative and population size will decrease
     * Intrinsic rate of growth: when reproductive rate (r) is at maximum (biotic potential)     * Intrinsic rate of growth: when reproductive rate (r) is at maximum (biotic potential)
 * Patterns of Population Growth  * Patterns of Population Growth 
-    - Exponential growth: occurs whenever the reproductive rate is greater than one. Results from reproduction w/o constraints [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/VfMAbXKtG8ussmTl2hQqzRVrQAvUM6bGYNH7fRwISimRrEZiNNkmEpd2MYvhHYksvGwQs7_RIaBgxuS-QFMgUcKPfFMff5atKR-9QVkhGTqstoU3cLto7-xomGmlZkc7PTQsonTQYJSCeYgG7MIICQ|<html>+    - Exponential growth: occurs whenever the reproductive rate is greater than one. Results from reproduction w/o constraints https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/VfMAbXKtG8ussmTl2hQqzRVrQAvUM6bGYNH7fRwISimRrEZiNNkmEpd2MYvhHYksvGwQs7_RIaBgxuS-QFMgUcKPfFMff5atKR-9QVkhGTqstoU3cLto7-xomGmlZkc7PTQsonTQYJSCeYgG7MIICQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/VfMAbXKtG8ussmTl2hQqzRVrQAvUM6bGYNH7fRwISimRrEZiNNkmEpd2MYvhHYksvGwQs7_RIaBgxuS-QFMgUcKPfFMff5atKR-9QVkhGTqstoU3cLto7-xomGmlZkc7PTQsonTQYJSCeYgG7MIICQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/VfMAbXKtG8ussmTl2hQqzRVrQAvUM6bGYNH7fRwISimRrEZiNNkmEpd2MYvhHYksvGwQs7_RIaBgxuS-QFMgUcKPfFMff5atKR-9QVkhGTqstoU3cLto7-xomGmlZkc7PTQsonTQYJSCeYgG7MIICQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * A population will usually exhibit exponential growth when they have more resources and space that they need     * A population will usually exhibit exponential growth when they have more resources and space that they need
-    * Formula: [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/eYPdtL64J6Pey-882tDdhu2pwZitvms_rk7SPbLvehvrvdQ7uusAFJcu3FkAqI8iJ2OyKDf-5NVSV174BL_TRWqjGHoIvTvN5pa5AJaobq5il_p03eRM86kL67hvSkl4YYUGXaFegfGa9wJMftJs1g|<html>+    * Formula: https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/eYPdtL64J6Pey-882tDdhu2pwZitvms_rk7SPbLvehvrvdQ7uusAFJcu3FkAqI8iJ2OyKDf-5NVSV174BL_TRWqjGHoIvTvN5pa5AJaobq5il_p03eRM86kL67hvSkl4YYUGXaFegfGa9wJMftJs1g|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/eYPdtL64J6Pey-882tDdhu2pwZitvms_rk7SPbLvehvrvdQ7uusAFJcu3FkAqI8iJ2OyKDf-5NVSV174BL_TRWqjGHoIvTvN5pa5AJaobq5il_p03eRM86kL67hvSkl4YYUGXaFegfGa9wJMftJs1g" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/eYPdtL64J6Pey-882tDdhu2pwZitvms_rk7SPbLvehvrvdQ7uusAFJcu3FkAqI8iJ2OyKDf-5NVSV174BL_TRWqjGHoIvTvN5pa5AJaobq5il_p03eRM86kL67hvSkl4YYUGXaFegfGa9wJMftJs1g" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
         * ΔN is the change in population size → add to original N to find total population         * ΔN is the change in population size → add to original N to find total population
         * ΔT is change in time         * ΔT is change in time
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     * Cause for logistic growth: density-dependent factor becomes limiting and then population stabilizes (population at carrying capacity = stable)     * Cause for logistic growth: density-dependent factor becomes limiting and then population stabilizes (population at carrying capacity = stable)
         * Population will usually switch to logistic growth bcuz of competition for resources (food, space, mates)         * Population will usually switch to logistic growth bcuz of competition for resources (food, space, mates)
-    * Formula: [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/s101NTueWJQvIpeGsKhsyk7lrrIO5BE5oD3mDJ08ernjeYmcHCapsa3F0K2owkSGg9O746U5FXk-b7SAzscWm_ieqZFkD_aNAU0t2Bw_mkUCFUisirUSlUFmGTbx3IIbd2QArD0XspBYVQCO71E89A|<html>+    * Formula: https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/s101NTueWJQvIpeGsKhsyk7lrrIO5BE5oD3mDJ08ernjeYmcHCapsa3F0K2owkSGg9O746U5FXk-b7SAzscWm_ieqZFkD_aNAU0t2Bw_mkUCFUisirUSlUFmGTbx3IIbd2QArD0XspBYVQCO71E89A|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/s101NTueWJQvIpeGsKhsyk7lrrIO5BE5oD3mDJ08ernjeYmcHCapsa3F0K2owkSGg9O746U5FXk-b7SAzscWm_ieqZFkD_aNAU0t2Bw_mkUCFUisirUSlUFmGTbx3IIbd2QArD0XspBYVQCO71E89A" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/s101NTueWJQvIpeGsKhsyk7lrrIO5BE5oD3mDJ08ernjeYmcHCapsa3F0K2owkSGg9O746U5FXk-b7SAzscWm_ieqZFkD_aNAU0t2Bw_mkUCFUisirUSlUFmGTbx3IIbd2QArD0XspBYVQCO71E89A" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
         * K = carrying capacity.         * K = carrying capacity.
         * If question gives you max population, use logistic formula         * If question gives you max population, use logistic formula
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         * When the population size is small, limiting factors exert little negative feedback → population growth         * When the population size is small, limiting factors exert little negative feedback → population growth
         * Ex: since many limiting factors are density-dependent, will have a greater effect when population size is large         * Ex: since many limiting factors are density-dependent, will have a greater effect when population size is large
-    - [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_31|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_31.png}}]] +    - Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_31|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_31.png}} 
     * Life History of an organism is its strategy for maximum fitness.     * Life History of an organism is its strategy for maximum fitness.
     - R-selected species exhibit rapid (exponential) growth     - R-selected species exhibit rapid (exponential) growth
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     * Benefits of species diversity: ecosystem with higher species diversity can better resist environmental change     * Benefits of species diversity: ecosystem with higher species diversity can better resist environmental change
         * Increased productivity and stability of communities (can survive better), produce more biomass (total mass of all organisms in a habitat), more resistant to introduced species         * Increased productivity and stability of communities (can survive better), produce more biomass (total mass of all organisms in a habitat), more resistant to introduced species
-* Structure of Communities: [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_fqxLPXmcO8tNY4qq0by5DjCi0ElDifrCCWloNeZdfbVFEO5GScQl4jvbd1qXDJFhtx7k8r8cSZ18kEThn26e6BRNKyTCWL9pJ-SI6i1P_7yy7xPHoiAt8aVttedW4t6zUfivaPXOuTsY9MH0X1thw|<html>+* Structure of Communities: https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_fqxLPXmcO8tNY4qq0by5DjCi0ElDifrCCWloNeZdfbVFEO5GScQl4jvbd1qXDJFhtx7k8r8cSZ18kEThn26e6BRNKyTCWL9pJ-SI6i1P_7yy7xPHoiAt8aVttedW4t6zUfivaPXOuTsY9MH0X1thw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_fqxLPXmcO8tNY4qq0by5DjCi0ElDifrCCWloNeZdfbVFEO5GScQl4jvbd1qXDJFhtx7k8r8cSZ18kEThn26e6BRNKyTCWL9pJ-SI6i1P_7yy7xPHoiAt8aVttedW4t6zUfivaPXOuTsY9MH0X1thw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/_fqxLPXmcO8tNY4qq0by5DjCi0ElDifrCCWloNeZdfbVFEO5GScQl4jvbd1qXDJFhtx7k8r8cSZ18kEThn26e6BRNKyTCWL9pJ-SI6i1P_7yy7xPHoiAt8aVttedW4t6zUfivaPXOuTsY9MH0X1thw" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
     * Simpson’s Diversity Index: measures species diversity     * Simpson’s Diversity Index: measures species diversity
     * Higher index value = more diverse     * Higher index value = more diverse
-        * Based on random samples of environment [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/yMYGspDCEZpxSDzkrYRJlGug759iqIaPBqNZ3MmaOWxjKtuJYY3FKqUksT5J0iJZjNRKy8OfFhTs5lD2Jns1c-KkuFYCxoP3lg4t9j9hCFp2PLfmhw5A9E7JY8HdGF9liNmONhfuWgx_wsWnf8XNXQ|<html>+        * Based on random samples of environment https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/yMYGspDCEZpxSDzkrYRJlGug759iqIaPBqNZ3MmaOWxjKtuJYY3FKqUksT5J0iJZjNRKy8OfFhTs5lD2Jns1c-KkuFYCxoP3lg4t9j9hCFp2PLfmhw5A9E7JY8HdGF9liNmONhfuWgx_wsWnf8XNXQ|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/yMYGspDCEZpxSDzkrYRJlGug759iqIaPBqNZ3MmaOWxjKtuJYY3FKqUksT5J0iJZjNRKy8OfFhTs5lD2Jns1c-KkuFYCxoP3lg4t9j9hCFp2PLfmhw5A9E7JY8HdGF9liNmONhfuWgx_wsWnf8XNXQ" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/yMYGspDCEZpxSDzkrYRJlGug759iqIaPBqNZ3MmaOWxjKtuJYY3FKqUksT5J0iJZjNRKy8OfFhTs5lD2Jns1c-KkuFYCxoP3lg4t9j9hCFp2PLfmhw5A9E7JY8HdGF9liNmONhfuWgx_wsWnf8XNXQ" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
 * Interactions in Communities  * Interactions in Communities 
     * Competitive Exclusion principle (Gause’s principle): Two species cannot occupy the same niche (when resources are limiting)     * Competitive Exclusion principle (Gause’s principle): Two species cannot occupy the same niche (when resources are limiting)
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     - Parasite feeds and lives on host’s tissues, weakening it     - Parasite feeds and lives on host’s tissues, weakening it
     - Parasitoid is an insect that lays its eggs in a host     - Parasitoid is an insect that lays its eggs in a host
-    - Herbivore is an animal that eats plants [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/gOWEofbnKOVesH2l1JmD22fnWAJm3S425pQ5qs5ClVG7bujqYNqEkZPlLAbXpmDmRDa4xhtFR0mqAODDkyr9HLBux4BqjSgM8YrL_7ThQoWvUFzJmmWatuM1y_jvqsULIGJar4U7dbp-dZDnT29V0Q|<html>+    - Herbivore is an animal that eats plants https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/gOWEofbnKOVesH2l1JmD22fnWAJm3S425pQ5qs5ClVG7bujqYNqEkZPlLAbXpmDmRDa4xhtFR0mqAODDkyr9HLBux4BqjSgM8YrL_7ThQoWvUFzJmmWatuM1y_jvqsULIGJar4U7dbp-dZDnT29V0Q|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/gOWEofbnKOVesH2l1JmD22fnWAJm3S425pQ5qs5ClVG7bujqYNqEkZPlLAbXpmDmRDa4xhtFR0mqAODDkyr9HLBux4BqjSgM8YrL_7ThQoWvUFzJmmWatuM1y_jvqsULIGJar4U7dbp-dZDnT29V0Q" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/gOWEofbnKOVesH2l1JmD22fnWAJm3S425pQ5qs5ClVG7bujqYNqEkZPlLAbXpmDmRDa4xhtFR0mqAODDkyr9HLBux4BqjSgM8YrL_7ThQoWvUFzJmmWatuM1y_jvqsULIGJar4U7dbp-dZDnT29V0Q" alt="">
-</html>]] +</html> 
 * Predator-Prey Interactions  * Predator-Prey Interactions 
     * Increase/decrease in predator occurs slightly after increase/decrease in prey     * Increase/decrease in predator occurs slightly after increase/decrease in prey
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       * Reservoirs: oceans, groundwater, glaciers (Evaporation, wind, and precipitation remove water from oceans to land)       * Reservoirs: oceans, groundwater, glaciers (Evaporation, wind, and precipitation remove water from oceans to land)
       * Assimilation: plants absorb water from soil, animals drink water or eat other organisms       * Assimilation: plants absorb water from soil, animals drink water or eat other organisms
-    - [[Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_32|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_32.png}}]] +    - Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_32|{{Untitled_a1baf95c2be74fad95ea92c3882c2c8f:Untitled_32.png}} 
       * Release: plants transpire; animals and plants decompose       * Release: plants transpire; animals and plants decompose
     - Carbon cycle     - Carbon cycle
Line 4738: Line 4738:
 ====Chi-Squared Tests==== ====Chi-Squared Tests====
     - Calculation Based: Chi-Squared Tests      - Calculation Based: Chi-Squared Tests 
-[[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/feKBSHkmO3eKLQaKCnye-fwt8AiQgqhr4KCA2DDmlk87pMdbvQqcmMlHyG2t9vrueL5t1JnBzw1liSfKFSN0R0uOhogADR92yGKYajmW1aiG4r2ox68NWWu12ZK1O04eQpUEJOvP0yhaixCKH8i-Wg|<html>+https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/feKBSHkmO3eKLQaKCnye-fwt8AiQgqhr4KCA2DDmlk87pMdbvQqcmMlHyG2t9vrueL5t1JnBzw1liSfKFSN0R0uOhogADR92yGKYajmW1aiG4r2ox68NWWu12ZK1O04eQpUEJOvP0yhaixCKH8i-Wg|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/feKBSHkmO3eKLQaKCnye-fwt8AiQgqhr4KCA2DDmlk87pMdbvQqcmMlHyG2t9vrueL5t1JnBzw1liSfKFSN0R0uOhogADR92yGKYajmW1aiG4r2ox68NWWu12ZK1O04eQpUEJOvP0yhaixCKH8i-Wg" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/feKBSHkmO3eKLQaKCnye-fwt8AiQgqhr4KCA2DDmlk87pMdbvQqcmMlHyG2t9vrueL5t1JnBzw1liSfKFSN0R0uOhogADR92yGKYajmW1aiG4r2ox68NWWu12ZK1O04eQpUEJOvP0yhaixCKH8i-Wg" alt="">
-</html>]] Chi-Squared Tests Formula [[https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xyHKCRCgiP2aZLVxXFE5MSxSbo_H_tcaaO0xVqlwTRph1j6tYFGwWQLSwRv7kuA1rfIfhV0-C2EJAgMIXJPDSNZQvi3EnFCuGmdr31viWVmIaBUAkRCMS2e4SsVlnlZdVnLmonDVjfEQTCw1COfmgw|<html>+</html> Chi-Squared Tests Formula https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xyHKCRCgiP2aZLVxXFE5MSxSbo_H_tcaaO0xVqlwTRph1j6tYFGwWQLSwRv7kuA1rfIfhV0-C2EJAgMIXJPDSNZQvi3EnFCuGmdr31viWVmIaBUAkRCMS2e4SsVlnlZdVnLmonDVjfEQTCw1COfmgw|<html>
 <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xyHKCRCgiP2aZLVxXFE5MSxSbo_H_tcaaO0xVqlwTRph1j6tYFGwWQLSwRv7kuA1rfIfhV0-C2EJAgMIXJPDSNZQvi3EnFCuGmdr31viWVmIaBUAkRCMS2e4SsVlnlZdVnLmonDVjfEQTCw1COfmgw" alt=""> <img src="https://lh7-us.googleusercontent.com/xyHKCRCgiP2aZLVxXFE5MSxSbo_H_tcaaO0xVqlwTRph1j6tYFGwWQLSwRv7kuA1rfIfhV0-C2EJAgMIXJPDSNZQvi3EnFCuGmdr31viWVmIaBUAkRCMS2e4SsVlnlZdVnLmonDVjfEQTCw1COfmgw" alt="">
-</html>]] Critical Value: the number on the table; figure out your degrees of freedom, and ALWAYS use 0.05 +</html> Critical Value: the number on the table; figure out your degrees of freedom, and ALWAYS use 0.05 
     * This means that you are 95% sure of it being accurate (if you pick 0.05)     * This means that you are 95% sure of it being accurate (if you pick 0.05)
     - Degrees of freedom: number of “choices” that you could possibly have minus 1 If the chi squared value is higher than the critical value on the table, then you reject the null hypothesis. If it’s lower than the critical value, then you accept it \ \ Graphs Bar Graphs      - Degrees of freedom: number of “choices” that you could possibly have minus 1 If the chi squared value is higher than the critical value on the table, then you reject the null hypothesis. If it’s lower than the critical value, then you accept it \ \ Graphs Bar Graphs 
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